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Robert Morris (merchant)

Robert Morris (merchant)

Robert Morris, Jr. (January 31, 1734 – May 8, 1806) was an American merchant and a signatory to the United States Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the United States Constitution. Morris was known as the Financier of the Revolution, because of his role in securing financial assistance for the American Colonial side in the Revolutionary War.

Early life

Born on January 31, 1734 near Liverpool England, Morris moved to live with his father, tobacco exporter Robert Morris, Sr., in Oxford, Maryland at the age of 13. The younger Morris enrolled in school in Philadelphia, but apparently learned little. In 1750, when he was 15, his father passed away, ironically as a result of being wounded by the wadding of a ship's gun that was fired in his honor. At age 16 Morris was apprenticed to the shipping and banking firm of the wealthy Philadelphia merchant Charles Willing. After Willing's death four years later, 20-year-old Morris became the partner of Charles's son, Thomas Willing. The partnership of Willing, Morris, and Company (later known by various other names) lasted until 1793. The firm's business of importation, exportation, and general banking made it one of the most prosperous in Pennsylvania, and as a result Morris became both wealthy and influential in Philadelphia.

Public career

Before the Revolutionary War

The Stamp Act of 1765-1766 affected Morris's business due to its dependence on imports. In 1775, Morris began his public career by serving on a local committee organized to protest the Stamp Act. Although he remained loyal to England, he believed that the new laws constituted taxation without representation and violated the colonists' rights as English citizens. Before the Revolution England controlled the port of Philadelphia. The British Crown wanted to encourage the slave trade and enrich the King's friends. At the same time, During the Seven Years War, the usual supply of indentured servants was not available because those people were conscripted to fight in Europe. Morris was a junior partner in Willing, Morris & Co when they sent out one of their ships on a slave trading voyage. They didn't carry enough to be profitable, and after a second trip their ship was captured by French privateers. They lost money in the business. Later they both supported the non-importation agreements that marked the end of the slave trade into Philadelphia. As time went on Morris tried to tax the slave trade, and to lay a head tax on the slaves payable by the owner. His efforts were not appreciated by the Southerners who then proceeded to fight all his measures. Morris was elected to the Pennsylvania Council of Safety (1775-1776), the Committee of Correspondence, the Provincial Assembly (1775-1776), and the Pennsylvania legislature (1776-1778). Morris was also elected to represent Pennsylvania in the Second Continental Congress from 1775 to 1778. In 1775 the Continental Congress contracted with Morris's company to import arms and ammunition. Morris was Chairman of the Secret Committee where he devised a system to smuggle war supplies from France a year before Independence was declared. He served with John Adams on the committee that wrote the Model Treaty. The Model Treaty incorporated his long held belief in Free Trade. It was an outgrowth of his trading system, and acted as the basis for the Treaty with France. He served on the Marine and Maritime Committees and sold his best ship, The Black Prince, to the Continental Congress. It became The Alfred, the first ship in the Continental Navy. A captain who sailed for his company became the Captain of the Alfred. He was John Barry. Morris used his extensive international trading network as a spy network and gathered intelligence on British troop movements. One of his spies sent the information that allowed the Americans to defend Fort Moultrie near Charlestown, South Carolina. On July 1, 1776, Morris voted against the Declaration of Independence, and he declined to vote when the document was adopted on July 4, 1776. On August 2 of the same year however, Morris signed the Declaration.

During the War

During the Revolutionary War, in December 1776, Morris stayed in Philadelphia when the rest of Congress ran away to Baltimore. He managed to borrow $10,000 to pay Washington’s troops. This helped to keep the Army together just before the battles of Trenton and Princeton. In March 1778 Morris signed the Articles of Confederation as a representative of Pennsylvania. Morris's great wealth increased thanks to privateers that seized the cargo of English ships during the war. Morris owned many of the privateer ships, and also helped to sell off the English spoils as they came into port. Immediately after serving in the Congress Morris served two more terms on the state legislature, from 1778 to 1781. While he was in the Pennsylvania Assembly Morris worked to restore checks and balances to the state constitution, and to overturn the religious test laws. During this time Thomas Paine, Henry Laurens, and others criticized him and his firm for alleged was profiteering. A congressional committee acquitted Morris and his firm on charges of engaging in improper financial transactions in 1779, but his reputation was damaged after this incident. Morris joined a Merchants Association which supplied war materials to the troops when the state failed to act. Pennsylvania went bankrupt in 1780 due to the failure of state controlled markets and self-imposed embargos. Ultimately the state called on Morris to restore the economy. He did so by opening the ports to trade, and allowing the market to set the value of the currency. In a unanimous vote, Congress appointed Morris to be Superintendent of Finance of the United States from 1781 to 1784. When Morris began this post the US was in a crisis. The British controlled the coast line from the sea, two major cities, and the western frontier. The treasury was in debt by $2.5 million and public credit had collapsed. Congress resultingly gave Mr. Morris great power and allowed him to continue his profitable private endeavors while serving in a related public office. Three days after becoming Superintendent of Finance Morris proposed the establishment of a national bank. This led to the creation of the first financial institution chartered by the United States, the Bank of North America, in 1782. The bank was funded in part by a significant loan Morris had obtained from France in 1781. The initial role of the bank was to finance the war against England. As Superintendent of Finance Morris instituted several reforms, including reducing the civil list, significantly cutting government spending by using competitive bidding for contracts, tightening accounting procedures, and demanding the federal government's full share of support (money and supplies) from the States. Morris obtained supplies for the army of Nathanael Greene in 1779, and from 1781-1783. He took an active role in getting Washington from New York State to Yorktown Virginia. He acted as quartermaster for the trip and supplied over $1,400,000 in his own credit to move the Army. He was also Agent of Marine and coordinated with the French Navy to get Washington's Army to the Battle of Yorktown (1781). After Yorktown Morris noted the war had changed from a war of bullets to a war of finances. At times he took out loans from friends and risked his personal credit by issuing notes on his own signature to purchase items such as military supplies. Morris's use of his personal credit strained his own fortune. Morris later claimed that although he lost over 150 ships during the war he came out of it "about even." During his tenure as Superintendent, Morris was assisted by his friend and assistant Gouverneur Morris (no relation). He proposed a national economic system in a document called "On Public Credit". This acted as the basis for Hamilton's plan of the same name submitted much later. On January 15, 1782 Morris drafted a proposal that he later presented to the Continental Congress to recommend the establishment of a national mint and decimal coinage. However, the US Mint was not established until 1792, after further proposals by Hamilton.

Later political career

Morris was elected to the Constitutional Convention in 1787. He managed to get Gouverneur Morris onto the committee and also James Wilson. Both argued forcefully for the abolition of slavery during the Convention. His only significant role in that body was to nominate his friend George Washington as its president. Washington appointed Morris Secretary of the Treasury in 1789, but Morris declined (suggesting instead Alexander Hamilton). He served as a United States Senator from 1789 to 1795. As Senator he generally supported the Federalist party and backed Hamilton's economic proposals.

Personal information

On March 2, 1769, at 35 years old, Morris married 20-year-old Mary White. Together they had five sons and two daughters. Morris was an Episcopalian.

Later life

Morris founded several canal companies, a steam engine company, and launched a hot air balloon from his garden on Market Street. He had the first iron rolling mill in America. His ice house was the model for the one Washington put in at Mount Vernon. He backed the new Chestnut Street Theatre, started the Horticultural Society and had a green house with lemon trees in it. He purchased essentially all of Western New York. His son Thomas settled the peace with the Six Nations, who had sided with the English during the Revolution. Then Morris sold most of the vast tract it to the Holland Land Company. In 1794 he began construction of a mansion on Chestnut Street in Philadelphia designed by Pierre Charles L'Enfant. Morris was later heavily involved in unsuccessful land speculations, investing in District of Columbia, and purchasing over 6,000,000 acres in the rural south. An expected loan from Holland never materialized because Napoleon invaded Holland. The Napoleonic Wars ruined the market for American Lands and Morris's highly leveraged company collapsed. Although he attempted to flee from creditors by hiding at The Hills, his country estate on the Schuylkill River in Philadelphia, he was arrested and imprisoned for debt in Prune Street prison in Philadelphia from February 1798 to August 1801. His unfinished mansion became known as "Morris's folly". Marbles from this house were purchased by Latrobe and adorn buildings and monuments from Rhode Island to Charlestown SC. Morris's economic failure reduced the fortunes of many other prominent Federalists who had invested in his ventures. Demagogues among Morris's political adversaries used his bankruptcy to gain political power in Pennsylvania. Governor Thomas McKean was elected and refined the art of political patronage in America. McKean’s party then picked the Pennsylvania members of the electoral college for the election of 1800, and this helped Thomas Jefferson become president. Congress passed the Bankruptcy Laws, in part, to get Morris out of prison. After his release, and suffering from poor health, Morris spent the rest of his life in retirement. He was assisted by his wife, who had supported him throughout his misfortune. Morris died on May 8, 1806, in Philadelphia, and is buried in the family vault of William White at Christ Church.

Legacy

Morris's portrait appeared on US $1000 notes from 1862 to 1863 and on the $10 silver certificates from 1878 to 1880. Along with Alexander Hamilton and Albert Gallatin, Morris is considered one of the key founders of the financial system in the United States. Morris and Roger Sherman were the only two people to sign the three significant founding documents of the United States, the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the U.S. Constitution. Along with Oliver Pollock, Morris may have also played a role in the creation of the dollar sign ("$"); see Dollar. Institutions named in honor of Morris include:
- Robert Morris College
- Robert Morris University Mount Morris, New York, location of a large flood control dam on the Genesee River, was named in honor of Robert Morris. A number of ships in the United States Navy have been named USS Morris for him.

See also


- The Morris Reserve

Further reading


- Ferguson, James (editor): The Papers of Robert Morris 1781-1784 (9 volumes): University of Pittsburgh Press, 1978; (1995 reprint: ISBN 0822938863).
- Ver Steeg, Clarence L.: Robert Morris, Revolutionary Financier. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1954 (ISBN 0374980780). Morris, Robert Morris, Robert Morris, Robert Morris, Robert Morris, Robert Morris, Robert Morris, Robert

1734

Events


- January 8 - Premiere of George Frideric Handel's opera Ariodante at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden.
- June 17 - French troops take Philippsburg, but the Duke of Berwick is killed
- June 21 - In Montreal in New France, a black slave known by the French name of Marie-Joseph Angélique, was tortured then hanged by the French authorities in a public ceremony that involved her disgrace and the amputation of a hand.
- June 30 - Russian troops take Gdańsk (German:Danzig) which had been besieged since October 1733. Gdańsk is captured after the failure of a French expedition to relieve the city

Births


- February 27 - Thomas Conway, American Revolutionary War general (d. 1800)
- March 19 - Thomas McKean, American lawyer and signer of the Declaration of Independence (d. 1817)
- May 23 - Franz Mesmer, Austrian physician (d. 1815)
- September 3 - Joseph Wright, British painter (d. 1797)
- October 7 - Sir Ralph Abercromby, British general (d. 1801)
- November 2 - Daniel Boone, American frontiersman (d. 1820)
- December 15 - George Romney, English painter (d. 1802)
- December 17 - Maria I of Portugal, Portuguese queen, from Braganza Dinasty (d.1816)

Deaths


- January 6 - John Dennis, English critic and dramatist (b. 1657)
- February 1 - John Floyer, English physician and writer (b. 1649)
- February 1 - Giuseppe Ottavio Pitoni, Italian composer (b. 1657)
- March 1 - Roger North, English biographer (b. 1653)
- March 21 - Robert Wodrow, Scottish historian (b. 1679)
- May 4 - James Thornhill, English painter (b. 1675 or 1676)
- May 24 - Georg Ernst Stahl, German physician and chemist (b. 1660)
- June 12 - James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick, illegitimate son of James II of England and French military commander (b. 1670)
- June 17 - Claude-Louis-Hector de Villars, Marshall of France (b. 1653)
- June 21 - Marie-Joseph Angélique, African slave
- July 22 - Peter King, 1st Baron King, Lord Chancellor of England (b. c. 1669)
- November 14 - Louise de Kérouaille, Duchess of Portsmouth, French-born mistress of Charles II of England (b. 1649)
- December 28 - Rob Roy MacGregor, Scottish clan chief (b. 1671) Category:1734 ko:1734년

May 8

May 8 is the 128th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (129th in leap years). There are 237 days remaining.

Events


- 1450 - Jack Cade's Rebellion: Kentishmen revolt against King Henry VI.
- 1541 - Hernando de Soto reaches the Mississippi River and names it Río de Espíritu Santo.
- 1794 - Branded a traitor during the Reign of Terror by revolutionists, French chemist Antoine Lavoisier, who was also a tax collector with the Ferme Générale, was tried, convicted, and guillotined all on one day in Paris.
- 1846 - Mexican-American War: The Battle of Palo Alto – Zachary Taylor defeats a Mexican force north of the Rio Grande in the first major battle of the war.
- 1861 - American Civil War: Richmond, Virginia, is named the capital of the Confederate States of America.
- 1877 - At Gilmore's Gardens in New York City, the first Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show opens (ends May 11).
- 1886 - Pharmacist Dr. John Styth Pemberton invents a carbonated beverage that would later be named "Coca-Cola".
- 1896 - Against Warwickshire, Yorkshire sets a still-standing County Championship record when they accumulate an innings total of 887.
- 1898 - The first games of the Italian Football League are played.
- 1899 - The Irish Literary Theatre in Dublin opens.
- 1902 - In Martinique, Mount Pelée erupts, destroying the town of St. Pierre and killing over 30,000 people. Only a handful of residents survive the blast.
- 1914 - Paramount Pictures is formed.
- 1919 - Edward George Honey first proposed the idea of a moment of silence to commemorate The Armistice of World War I, which later resulted in the creation of Remembrance Day.
- 1933 - Mohandas Gandhi begins a 21-day fast in protest of British oppression in India.
- 1942 - World War II: The Battle of the Coral Sea comes to an end. This is the first time in the naval history where two enemy fleets fight without visual contact between warring ships.
- 1942 - Second World War: On the night of 8/9 May 1942, gunners of the Ceylon Garrison Artillery on Horsburgh Island in the Cocos Islands rebelled. Their mutiny was crushed and three of them were executed, the only British Commonwealth soldiers to be executed for mutiny during the Second World War.
- 1945 - World War II: VE Day. German forces agree to an unconditional surrender.
- 1945 - Thousands of Algerian civilians are killed by French Army soldiers in the Setif massacre.
- 1967 - The Philippine province of Davao is split into three: Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, and Davao Oriental.
- 1972 - Vietnam War – U.S. President Richard M. Nixon announces his order to place mines in major North Vietnamese ports in order to stem the flow of weapons and other goods to that nation.
- 1973 - A 71-day standoff, between federal authorities and the American Indian Movement members occupying the Pine Ridge Reservation at Wounded Knee, South Dakota, ends with the surrender of the militants.
- 1974 - The Canadian Government of Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau is defeated in the House of Commons.
- 1984 - The Soviet Union announces that it will boycott the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, California.
- 1984 - Cpl. Denis Lortie enters the Quebec National Assembly and opens fire, killing three and wounding 13. René Jalbert, sergeant-at-arms of the assembly, succeeds in calming him, for which he will later receive the Cross of Valour.
- 1987 - The SAS ambushes and kills the Loughall Martyrs.
- 1997 - A China Southern Airlines Boeing 737 crashes on approach into Shenzhen's Huangtian Airport, killing 35
- 1999 - Nancy Mace becomes the first female cadet to graduate from The Citadel military college.
- 2002 - Feyenoord win the UEFA Cup
- 2004 - The Texas Rangers defeat the Detroit Tigers, 16-15, in a 10-inning game featuring a wild hour-long 5th inning (after having given up eight runs in the top half of the inning, Texas scores 10 runs in the bottom half to tie). The ten-run deficit is the largest ever overcome by the Rangers and the 18 runs in one inning by both teams ties a MLB record). Alfonso Soriano also sets a Ranger record with six hits in one game.
- 2005 - The new Canadian War Museum opens, in commemoration of the 60th anniversary of V-E Day.

Births


- 1460 - Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach (d. 1536)
- 1521 - Petrus Canisius, Dutch Jesuit (d. 1597)
- 1587 - Victor Amadeus I, Duke of Savoy (d. 1637)
- 1622 - Claes Rålamb, Swedish statesman (d. 1698)
- 1629 - Niels Juel, Danish admiral (d. 1697)
- 1632 - Heino Heinrich Graf von Flemming, German field marshal and Governor of Berlin (d. 1706)
- 1653 - Claude-Louis-Hector de Villars, Marshall of France (d. 1734)
- 1668 - Alain-René Lesage, French writer (d. 1747)
- 1670 - Charles Beauclerk, 1st Duke of St Albans, English soldier (d. 1726)
- 1735 - Sir Nathaniel Dance-Holland, English painter (d. 1811)
- 1737 - Edward Gibbon, English historian (d. 1794)
- 1825 - George Bruce Malleson, Indian officer and author (d. 1898)
- 1828 - Jean Henri Dunant, Swiss founder of the Red Cross, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1910)
- 1829 - Louis Moreau Gottschalk, American composer and pianist (d. 1869)
- 1842 - Emil Christian Hansen, Danish fermentation physiologist (d. 1909)
- 1850 - Ross Barnes, baseball player (d. 1915)
- 1884 - Harry S. Truman, President of the United States (d. 1972)
- 1895 - Fulton J. Sheen, American bishop and television personality (d. 1979)
- 1899 - Friedrich Hayek, Austrian economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1992)
- 1902 - Andre Michael Lwoff, French microbiologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1994)
- 1903 - Fernandel, French actor (d. 1971)
- 1905 - Red Nichols, American jazz cornettist (d. 1965)
- 1906 - Roberto Rossellini, Italian director (d. 1977)
- 1911 - Robert Johnson, American singer and guitarist (d. 1938)
- 1914 - Romain Gary, Polish writer (d. 1980)
- 1916 - João Havelange, Brazilian industrialist and football league president
- 1919 - Lex Barker, American actor (d. 1973)
- 1925 - Ali Hassan Mwinyi, President of Tanzania
- 1926 - Sir David Attenborough, British television presenter and producer
- 1926 - Don Rickles, American comedian
- 1928 - Theodore Sorenson, American political operative and writer
- 1930 - Heather Harper, Irish soprano
- 1930 - Gary Snyder, American poet
- 1932 - Phyllida Law, Scottish actress
- 1932 - Sonny Liston, American boxer (d. 1970)
- 1935 - Jack Charlton, English footballer
- 1937 - Thomas Pynchon, American novelist
- 1940 - Ricky Nelson, American singer (d. 1985)
- 1943 - Toni Tennille, American singer
- 1944 - Gary Glitter, English singer
- 1945 - Keith Jarrett, American musician
- 1947 - H. Robert Horvitz, American biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- 1948 - Felicity Lott, English soprano
- 1951 - Chris Frantz, American drummer (Talking Heads)
- 1953 - Alex Van Halen, Dutch-born drummer
- 1954 - David Keith, American actor
- 1957 - Marie Myriam, French singer
- 1964 - Melissa Gilbert, American actress and president of the Screen Actors Guild
- 1964 - Bobby Labonte, American race car driver
- 1964 - Dave Rowntree, British drummer (Blur)
- 1966 - Claudio Taffarel, Brazilian footballer
- 1968 - Jamie Summers, American porn star
- 1972 - Darren Hayes, Australian singer
- 1973 - Hiromu Arakawa, Japanese artist
- 1974 - Korey Stringer, American football player (d. 2001)
- 1975 - Enrique Iglesias, Spanish-born singer
- 1976 - Martha Wainwright, Canadian musician and songwriter
- 1978 - Lúcio, Brazilian footballer
- 1980 - Michelle McManus, Scottish singer
- 1983 - Matt Jay, Busted

Deaths


- 1278 - Emperor Duanzong of China (b. 1268)
- 1319 - King Haakon V of Norway (b. 1270)
- 1473 - John Stafford, 1st Earl of Wiltshire, English politician (b. 1420)
- 1538 - Edward Fox, English bishop
- 1766 - Samuel Chandler, English non-conformist minister (b. 1693)
- 1773 - Ali Bey Al-Kabir, Mamluk Sultan of Egypt (b. 1728)
- 1781 - Richard Jago, English poet (b. 1715)
- 1785 - Étienne François, duc de Choiseul, French statesman (b. 1719)
- 1788 - Giovanni Antonio Scopoli, Italian-born physician and naturalist (b. 1723)
- 1794 - Antoine Lavoisier, French chemist (executed) (b. 1743)
- 1828 - Mauro Giuliani, Italian composer (b. 1781)
- 1842 - Jules Dumont d'Urville, French explorer (b. 1790)
- 1873 - John Stuart Mill, English philosopher (b. 1806)
- 1880 - Gustave Flaubert, French novelist (b. 1821)
- 1891 - Helena Blavatsky, Russian-born author (b. 1831)
- 1936 - Oswald Spengler, German historian and philosopher (b. 1880)
- 1947 - Harry Gordon Selfridge, American-born department store founder (b. 1858)
- 1950 - Vital Brazil, Brazilian physician (b. 1865)
- 1952 - William Fox, Austrian-born film producer (b. 1879)
- 1960 - J. H. C. Whitehead, British mathematician (b. 1904)
- 1975 - Avery Brundage, President of the International Olympic Committee (b. 1887)
- 1982 - Gilles Villeneuve, Canadian race car driver (b. 1950)
- 1985 - Theodore Sturgeon, American science fiction writer (b. 1918)
- 1988 - Robert A. Heinlein, American science fiction writer (b. 1907)
- 1990 - Luigi Nono, Italian composer (b. 1924)
- 1991 - Jean Langlais, French composer and pianist (b. 1907)
- 1991 - Rudolf Serkin, Austrian pianist (b. 1903)
- 1993 - Avram Davidson, writer (b. 1923)
- 1994 - George Peppard, American actor (b. 1928)
- 1996 - Beryl Burton, English cyclist (b. 1937)
- 1999 - Dirk Bogarde, American actor (b. 1921)
- 1999 - Dana Plato, American actress (b. 1964)
- 2000 - Guadalupe "Pita" Amor, Mexican poet (b. 1918)

Holidays and observances


- Roman Empire - festival in honour of Mens
- Mother's Day - 1977, 1988, 1994, 2005, 2011
- World Red Cross Day
- VE Day

Recorded this day


- 1906 - "It Takes The Irish To Beat The Dutch" by Billy Murray
- 1941 - "Let Me Off Uptown" by Anita O'Day & Roy Eldridge with Gene Krupa & his Orchestra

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/8 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050508.html The New York Times: On This Day] ---- May 7 - May 9 - April 8 - June 8 – listing of all days ko:5월 8일 ms:8 Mei ja:5月8日 simple:May 8 th:8 พฤษภาคม

United States Declaration of Independence

The Declaration of Independence is the document in which the Thirteen Colonies declared themselves independent of the Kingdom of Great Britain and explained their justifications for doing so. It was ratified by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776. This anniversary is celebrated as Independence Day in the United States. The original signed copy of the document is on display in the National Archives in Washington, D.C.

History

Background

Washington, D.C. Throughout the 1760s and 1770s, relations between Great Britain and thirteen of her North American colonies had become increasingly strained. Fighting broke out in 1775 at Lexington and Concord marking the beginning of the American Revolutionary War. Although there was little initial sentiment for outright independence, the pamphlet Common Sense by Thomas Paine was able to promote the belief that total independence was the only possible route for the colonies. Independence was adopted on July 2, 1776, pursuant to the "Lee Resolution" presented to the Continental Congress by Richard Henry Lee of Virginia on June 7, 1776, which read (in part): "Resolved: That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved."

Draft and Adoption

On June 11, 1776, a committee consisting of John Adams of Massachusetts, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, Robert R. Livingston of New York, and Roger Sherman of Connecticut, was formed to draft a suitable declaration to frame this resolution. Jefferson did most of the writing, with input from the committee. His draft was presented to the Continental Congress on July 1, 1776. 1776 The full Declaration was rewritten somewhat in general session prior to its adoption by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, at the Pennsylvania State House. This version was only signed by the President of the Congress John Hancock and the Secretary Charles Thomson. A famous signing ceremony, often attributed to July 4, actually took place on August 2.

Distribution

After its adoption by Congress on July 4, a copy was then sent a few blocks away to the printing shop of John Dunlap. Through the night between 150 and 200 copies were made, now known as "Dunlap broadsides". One was sent to George Washington on July 6, who had it read to his troops in New York on July 9. The 25 Dunlap broadsides still known to exist are the oldest surviving copies of the document. On January 18, 1777, the Continental Congress ordered that the declaration be more widely distributed. The second printing was made by Mary Katharine Goddard. The first printing had included only the names John Hancock and Charles Thomson. Goddard's printing was the first to list all signatories. Word of the declaration reached London on August 10.

Signatories

August 10. [http://www.americanrevolution.org/deckey.html] ]] On July 19, 1776, Congress ordered a copy be handwritten for the delegates to sign. This copy of the Declaration was produced by Timothy Matlack, assistant to the secretary of Congress. Most of the delegates signed it on August 2, 1776, in geographic order of their colonies from north to south, though some delegates were not present and had to sign later. Two delegates never signed at all. As new delegates joined the congress, they were also allowed to sign. A total of 56 delegates eventually signed. This is the copy on display at the National Archives. The first and most famous signature on the Declaration was that of John Hancock, President of the Continental Congress. Two future presidents, Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, were among the signatories. Edward Rutledge (age 26), was the youngest signer, and Benjamin Franklin (age 70) was the oldest signer. The fifty-six signers of the Declaration represented the new states as follows: ;New Hampshire: Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, Matthew Thornton; ;Massachusetts: Samuel Adams, John Adams, John Hancock, Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry; ;Rhode Island: Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery; ;Connecticut: Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott; ;New York: William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris; ;New Jersey: Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark; ;Pennsylvania: Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross; ;Delaware: Caesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas McKean; ;Maryland: Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll of Carrollton; ;Virginia: George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton; ;North Carolina: William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn; ;South Carolina: Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton; ;Georgia: Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton.

Annotated text of the Declaration

George Walton The text of the Declaration of Independence can be divided into five sections: the introduction, the preamble, the indictment of George III, the denunciation of the British people, and the conclusion.

Introduction

In CONGRESS, July 4 1776 The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen United States of America, When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.

Preamble


- The preamble is presented as a logical demonstration, with one proposition leading to another proposition. From the first proposition (that all men are created equal), a chain of logic is produced that leads to the right of revolution when a government becomes destructive of the people's rights. We hold these Truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just Powers from the consent of the governed. That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these Ends, it is in the Right of the People to alter or abolish it, and to institute a new Government, laying its Foundation on such Principles, and organizing its Powers in such Form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient Causes; and accordingly all Experience hath shewn, that Mankind are more disposed to suffer, while Evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the Forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long Train of Abuses and Usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object, evinces a Design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their Right, it is their Duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future Security.

Indictment

throw off such Government Such has been the patient Sufferance so these Colonies; and such is now the Necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The History of the Present King of Great-Britain is a History of repeated Injuries and Usurpations, all having in direct Object the Establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let the Facts be submitted to a candid World.
- The signers then list 27 grievances against the British Crown. The grievances are directed personally at the King (as in "He has refused his Assent to Laws..."), although many of them refer to actions taken by the British Parliament or the Royal Governors. Many of the grievances are examples of violations of fundamental English law, such as "imposing taxes on us without our Consent", and "depriving us, in many Cases, of the Benefits of Trial by Jury". Many historians maintain that some of the grievances are exaggerated propaganda (such as the "Swarms of Officers" in truth referring to about fifty men ordered to prevent smuggling). In every stage of these Oppressions we have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble Terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated Injury. A Prince, whose Character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the Ruler of a free People.

Denunciation

Nor have we been wanting in Attentions to our British Brethren. We have warned them from Time to Time of Attempts by their Legislature to extend an unwarrantable Jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the Circumstances of our Emigration and Settlement here. We have appealed to their native Justice and Magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the Ties of our common Kindred to disavow these Usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our Connections and Correspondence. They too have been deaf to the Voice of Justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the Necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of Mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace, Friends.

Conclusion

propaganda in Philadelphia.]]
- The signers assert that (since conditions exist under which people must change their government, and the British have produced such conditions) the colonies must necessarily throw off political ties with the British Crown and become independent states. The conclusion contains, at its core, the Lee Resolution that had been passed on July 2. We, therefore, the Representatives of the UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, in GENERAL CONGRESS, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the World for the Rectitude of our Intentions, do, in the Name, and by the Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly Publish and Declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be, FREE AND INDEPENDENT STATES; that they are absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political Connection between them and the State of Great-Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as FREE AND INDEPENDENT STATES, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which INDEPENDENT STATES may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm Reliance on the Protection of the divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes, and our sacred Honor.

Differences between draft and final versions

Thomas Jefferson's original draft included a denunciation of the slave trade ("He has waged cruel war against human nature itself, violating its most sacred rights of life & liberty in the persons of a distant people who never offended him, captivating & carrying them into slavery in another hemisphere, or to incur miserable death in their transportation thither." ), which was later edited out, as was a lengthy criticism of the British people and parliament. Also, Jefferson's draft used the phrase "inherent and inalienable rights", which was changed to "certain unalienable rights." Jefferson created a collation of his draft and the final version in [http://libertyonline.hypermall.com/Jefferson/Autobiography.html#declaration his autobiography], which quotes both as using the word "inalienable" rather than "unalienable".

Analysis

collation

Historical Influences

The United States Declaration of Independence was influenced by the 1581 Dutch Republic declaration of independence, called the Oath of Abjuration. The Kingdom of Scotland's 1320 Declaration of Arbroath was undoubtedly also an influence as the first known formal declaration of independence. Jefferson is also thought to have drawn on the Virginia Declaration of Rights, which had been adopted in June 1776.

Philosophical background

The Preamble of the Declaration is influenced by Enlightenment philosophy, including the concepts of natural law, self-determination, and Deism. Ideas and even some of the phrasing was taken directly from the writings of English philosopher John Locke, particularly his Second Treatise on Government, titled "Essay Concerning the true original, extent, and end of Civil Government." In this treatise, Locke espoused the idea of government by consent. Locke wrote that human beings had certain natural rights. Other influences included the Discourses of Algernon Sydney, and the writings of Wawrzyniec Grzymala Goslicki and Thomas Paine. According to Jefferson, the purpose of the Declaration was "not to find out new principles, or new arguments, never before thought of . . . but to place before mankind the common sense of the subject, in terms so plain and firm as to command their assent, and to justify ourselves in the independent stand we are compelled to take."

Practical effects

Some historians believe that the Declaration was used as a propaganda tool, in which the Americans tried to establish clear reasons for their rebellion that might persuade reluctant colonists to join them and establish their just cause to foreign governments that might lend them aid. The Declaration also served to unite the members of the Continental Congress. Most were aware that they were signing what would be their death warrant in case the Revolution failed, and the Declaration served to make anything short of victory in the Revolution unthinkable.

Influence on other documents

The Declaration of Independence contains many of the founding fathers' fundamental principles, some of which were later codified in the United States Constitution. It was the model for the 1848 Seneca Falls Convention Declaration of Sentiments. It has also been used as the model of a number of later documents such as the declarations of independence of Vietnam and Rhodesia. In the United States, the Declaration has been frequently quoted in political speeches, such as Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address and Martin Luther King, Jr.'s I Have a Dream speech.

Popular culture

A fictionalized (but somewhat historically accurate) version of how the Declaration came about is the musical play (and 1972 movie) 1776, which is usually termed a "musical comedy" but deals frankly with the political issues, especially how disagreement over the institution of slavery almost defeated the Declaration's adoption. The Declaration of Independence is also the central subject of the 2004 film National Treasure, starring Nicolas Cage and Diane Kruger. In the film, a hidden treasure map on the back of the Declaration leads treasure hunters to a cache of wealth hidden from the British by Freemasons during the Revolutionary War.

Myths

Several myths surround the document:
- Because it is dated July 4, 1776, many people believe it was signed on that date - it was signed August 2 by most of the delegates.
- An unfounded legend states that John Hancock signed his name so large that King George III would be able to read it without his spectacles.
- A painting by John Trumbull, depicting the signing of the Declaration with all representatives present, hangs in the grand Rotunda of the Capitol of the United States: no such ceremony ever took place.
- There is no evidence that Benjamin Franklin ever made the statement often attributed to him: "We must all hang together, or most assuredly we shall hang separately".
- The Liberty Bell was not rung to celebrate independence, but to call the local inhabitants to hear the reading of the document on July 8, and it certainly did not acquire its crack on so doing: that story comes from a children's book of fiction, Legends of the American Revolution, by George Lippard. The Liberty Bell was actually named in the early nineteenth century when it became a symbol of the anti-slavery movement.

References


- [http://www.americanrevolution.com/DeclarationofIndependence.htm The complete text of the Declaration of Independence] at AmericanRevolution.com
- [http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/declaration_history.html "The Declaration of Independence: A History"] - detailing the history of the physical document from conception to today.

See also


- Declaration of independence
- History of the United States

External links

;Official website :
- [http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/declaration.html Declaration of Independence] at the National Archives ;Additional information :
- [http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/declaration_style.html "The Stylistic Artistry of the Declaration of Independence"] by Stephen E. Lucas - a thorough linguistic examination of the document. :
- Library of Congress: [http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/DeclarInd.html Declaration of Independence and related resources] :
- PBS/NOVA: [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/charters/ The Preservation and History of the Declaration] :
- ERIC Digest: [http://ericdigests.org/2003-4/independence.html "Teaching the Declaration of Independence"] :
- National Geographic News: [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/06/0629_040629_july4.html "U.S. Independence Celebrated on the Wrong Day?"] (July 2, 2004) :
- [http://www.generalatomic.com/AmericanHistory/declaration_of_independence.html "Declaration of Independence"] from the book Thrilling Incidents in American History :
- Colonial Hall: [http://www.colonialhall.com/histdocs/declaration/ A line by line historical analysis of the grievances]. ;Maps, photos, and other images :
- National Archives: [http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/charters_downloads.html High-resolution images of the Declaration] :
- [http://teachpol.tcnj.edu/amer_pol_hist/thumbnail31.html "Drafting of the Declaration of Independence. The Committee: Franklin, Jefferson, Adams, Livingston, and Sherman."] 1776. Copy of engraving after Alonzo Chappel. ([http://teachpol.tcnj.edu/amer_pol_hist/fi/0000001f.htm large version]) :
- [http://teachpol.tcnj.edu/amer_pol_hist/thumbnail32.html "The Declaration of Independence"] by John Trumbull. ([http://teachpol.tcnj.edu/amer_pol_hist/fi/00000020.htm large version]) :
- [http://www.declareyourself.com/videos.htm "Declaration of Independence Performance"]: A video hosted by Morgan Freeman with a dramatic reading of the Declaration of Independence by actors Mel Gibson, Michael Douglas, Kevin Spacey, Whoopi Goldberg, Edward Norton, Benicio Del Toro, Renée Zellweger, Winona Ryder, Graham Greene (actor), Ming-Na, and Kathy Bates. :
- [http://www.artlebedev.ru/kovodstvo2/sections/113/ An origin of the Declaration of Independence found 2004 in the National Archive in Kiev] (in Russian, with photos) ;The Signers :
- [http://www.snopes.com/history/american/pricepaid.asp The Price They Paid] Sorting Fact from Fiction. Declaration of Independence Category:United States official documents Category:U.S. colonial history Category:American Revolution Category:1776 in law ko:미국 독립선언 ja:アメリカ独立宣言

Articles of Confederation

The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, commonly known as the Articles of Confederation, formed the first governing document of the United States of America. They combined the colonies of the American Revolutionary War into a loose confederation. The second Continental Congress adopted the Articles on November 15, 1777, after 16 months of debate. The Articles then languished for another three years before ratification was completed on March 1, 1781. The Articles were replaced by the United States Constitution on June 21, 1788, when the 9th state, New Hampshire, ratified the Constitution. According to their own terms for modification, however, the Articles were still in effect until 1790, when every one of the 13 states had ratified the new Constitution.

Ratification

The Articles of Confederation were submitted to the states for ratification on November 17 1777, accompanied by a letter from Congress urging that the document :be candidly reviewed under a sense of the difficulty of combining in one general system the various sentiments and interests of a continent divided into so many sovereign and independent communities, under a conviction of the absolute necessity of uniting all our councils and all our strength, to maintain and defend our common liberties . . . The document only became effective as it was ratified by the states. This process dragged on for several years, stalled by an interstate quarrel over claims to uncolonized land in the west. Maryland was the last hold-out; it refused to ratify until Virginia and New York agreed to rescind their claims to lands in the Ohio River valley. All of the colonies rebelling against Britain ratified it by 1781. Although Congress debated the Articles for over a year, it requested immediate action on the part of the states. On February 5 1778 South Carolina became the first state to ratify the Articles of Confederation. However, three-and-a-half years passed before the final ratification by Maryland on March 1 1781.

Article Summaries

Even though the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution were established by much of the same people, they were still very different. The document contained 13 articles, a conclusion, and a signatory section. #Establishes the name of the confederation as "The United States of America" #Explains the rights possessed by any state, and the amount of power to which any state is entitled #Establishes the United States as a league of states united "...for their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them..." #Anyone can pass freely between states (excluding fugitives from the law) and be entitled to the rights established by the state into which he or she travels. If a crime is committed in one state and the perpetrator flees to another state, he will be transported to and tried in the state in which the crime was committed. #Allocates one vote in Congress to each state, which was entitled to a delegation of between two and seven members. Members of Congress were appointed by state legislatures; individuals could not serve more than three out of any six years. #Limits the powers of states to conduct foreign relations and to declare war. #When an army is raised for common defense, officers of or below the rank of colonel will be named by the state legislatures. #Expenditures by the United States will be paid by funds raised by state legislatures, and apportioned to the states based on the real property values of each. #Defines the rights of the central government: to declare war, to set weights and measures (including coins), and for Congress to serve as a final court for disputes between states. #Defines a Committee of the States to be a government when Congress is not in session. #Sets rules for new states requiring nine state approval, preapproves Canada, if they apply for membership. #Reaffirms that the Confederation accepts war debt incurred by Congress before the articles. #Declares that the articles are perpetual, and can only be altered by approval of Congress with ratification by all the state legislatures. Still at war with the Kingdom of Great Britain, the colonists were reluctant to establish another powerful national government. Jealously guarding their new independence, the Continental Congress created a loosely structured unicameral legislature that protected the liberty of the individual states at the expense of the confederation. While calling on Congress to regulate military and monetary affairs, for example, the Articles of Confederation provided no mechanism to ensure states complied with requests for troops or revenue. At times this left the military in a precarious position, as George Washington wrote in a 1781 letter to the governor of Massachusetts, John Hancock.

The end of the war

The Treaty of Paris (1783), ending hostilities with Great Britain, languished in Congress for months because state representatives failed to attend sessions of the national legislature. Yet, Congress had no power to enforce attendance. Writing to George Clinton in September 1783, George Washington complained: :Congress have come to no determination yet respecting the Peace Establishment, nor am I able to say when they will. I have lately had a conference with a Committee on this subject, and have reiterated my former opinions, but it appears to me that there is not a sufficient representation to discuss Great National points.

Function

The Articles supported the Congressional direction of the Continental Army, and allowed the Thirteen Colonies to present a unified front when dealing with the European powers. But as an instrument of government, they were largely a failure. Congress could make decisions, but had no power to enforce them. Perhaps the most important power that Congress was denied was the power of taxation: Congress could only request money from the states. Understandably, the states did not generally comply with the requests in full, leaving the confederation chronically short of funds. The states and the national congress had both incurred debts during the war, and paying congressional debts became a major issue. Nevertheless the Continental Congress did take two actions with lasting impact. The Land Ordinance of 1785 established the general land survey and ownership provisions used throughout later American expansion. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 noted the agreement of the original states to give up western land claims and cleared the way for the entry of new states. Once the unity demanded by the Revolutionary War became unnecessary, the Continental Army was largely disbanded. A very small national force was maintained to man frontier forts and protect against Indian attacks. Meanwhile, each of the states had an army (or militia), and 11 of them had navies. The wartime promises of bounties and land grants to be paid for service were not being met. In 1783, Washington defused the Newburgh conspiracy, but riots by unpaid Pennsylvania veterans forced the Congress to leave Philadelphia on June 21.

Revision

In May 1786, Charles Pinckney of South Carolina proposed that Congress revise the Articles of Confederation. Recommended changes included granting Congress power over foreign and domestic commerce, and providing means for Congress to collect money from state treasuries. Unanimous approval was necessary to make the alterations, however, and Congress failed to reach a consensus. In September, five states assembled in the Annapolis Convention (1786) to discuss adjustments that would improve commerce. Under their chairman, Alexander Hamilton, they invited state representatives to convene in Philadelphia to discuss improvements to the federal government. After debate, Congress endorsed the plan to revise the Articles of Confederation on February 21 1787. According to some historians, the Articles were flawed; in particular, the confederal government was unable to settle state disputes on issues like trade and had no power to tax directly. After all, the states were thirteen individual republics. It took radical action to strip them of that sovereignty.

Lessons

Although ultimately replaced by the United States Constitution, the Articles of Confederation provided stability during the American Revolutionary War years. Most importantly, the experience of drafting and living under this initial document provided valuable lessons in self-governance and somewhat tempered fears about a powerful central government. Still, reconciling the tension between state and federal authority continues to challenge America, as seen in such conflicts as the 1832 Nullification Crisis, the American Civil War (1861-65), post-Civil War Reconstruction, and the Supreme Court's landmark Brown v. Board of Education decision in 1954.

Signatures

The copy of the Articles in the U.S. National Archives has a series of signatures on page six. A list of them is presented here. The signing of the Articles was a process that has caused some confusion. The Articles were approved for distribution to the states, on November 15, 1777. A copy was made for each state and one was kept by the Congress. The copies sent to the states for ratification were unsigned, and a cover letter had only the signatures of Henry Laurens and Charles Thomson, who were the President and Secretary to the Congress. But, the Articles at that time were unsigned, and the date was blank. Congress began the signing process by examining their copy of the Articles on June 27, 1778. They ordered a final copy prepared (the one in the National Archives), and that delegates should inform the secretary of their authority for ratification. Then, on July 9, 1778 the prepared copy was ready. They dated it, and began to sign. They also requested the remaining states to notify their delegation when ratification was completed. On that date, delegates present from New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and South Carolina signed the articles to indicate that their states had ratified. New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland could not, since their states had not ratified. North Carolina and Georgia also didn't sign that day, since their delegations were absent. After the first signing, some delegates signed at the next meeting they attended. For example John Wentworth of New Hampshire added his name on August 8. John Penn was the first of North Carolina's delegates to arrive (on July 10), and the delegation signed the Articles on July 21, 1778. The other states had to wait until they ratified the Articles, and notified their Congressional delegation. Georgia signed on July 24, New Jersey on November 26, and Delaware on February 12, 1779. After a wait of two years, Maryland ratified, and her delegates signed the Articles on March 1, 1781. The articles were finally in force. Congress had debated the Articles for over a year and a half, and the ratification process had taken nearly three and a half years. Many participants in the original debates were no longer delegates, and some of the signers had only recently arrived. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union were signed by a group of men who were never present in the Congress at the same time. The signers and the states they represented were:
- New Hampshire: Josiah Bartlett and John Wentworth Jr.
- Massachusetts Bay: John Hancock, Samuel Adams, Elbridge Gerry, Francis Dana, James Lovell, and Samuel Holten
- Rhode Island and Providence Plantations: William Ellery, Henry Marchant, and John Collins
- Connecticut: Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, Oliver Wolcott, Titus Hosmer, and Andrew Adams
- New York: James Duane, Francis Lewis, William Duer, and Gouverneur Morris
- New Jersey: John Witherspoon and Nathaniel Scudder
- Pennsylvania: Robert Morris, Daniel Roberdeau, Jonathan Bayard Smith, William Clingan, and Joseph Reed
- Delaware: Thomas McKean, John Dickinson, and Nicholas Van Dyke
- Maryland: John Hanson and Daniel Carroll
- Virginia: Richard Henry Lee, John Banister, Thomas Adams, John Harvie, and Francis Lightfoot Lee
- North Carolina: John Penn, Cornelius Harnett, and John Williams
- South Carolina: Henry Laurens, Will Henry Drayton, John Mathews, Richard Hutson, and Thomas Heyward Jr.
- Georgia: John Walton, Edward Telfair, and Edward Langworthy

Presidents under the Articles

The following list are those who led the Congress under the Articles of Confederation as the Presidents of the United States in Congress Assembled. The "president" under the Articles was the presiding officer of Congress, not the chief executive, as is the President of the United States under the Constitution. Also, the Articles defined the powers of a confederation of states as opposed to the current Constitution, which defines the powers of a federation of states. #Samuel Huntington #Thomas McKean #John Hanson #Elias Boudinot #Thomas Mifflin #Richard Henry Lee #John Hancock #Nathaniel Gorham #Arthur St. Clair #Cyrus Griffin For a full list of Presidents of the Congress Assembled and Presidents under the two Continental Congresses before the Articles, see President of the Continental Congress.

References

#[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@field(DOCID+@lit(jc00941)) Monday, November 17, 1777], Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774-1789. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/amlaw/lawhome.html A Century of Lawmaking, 1774-1873] #[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mgw:@field(DOCID+@lit(gw270170)) Letter George Washington to George Clinton], September 11, 1783. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/gwhtml/gwhome.html The George Washington Papers, 1741-1799]

External links


- [http://earlyamerica.com/earlyamerica/milestones/articles/cover.html Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union]".
- [http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/articles.html Library of Congress: Articles of Confederation and related resources]
- [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/nov15.html Library of Congress: "Today in History: November 15"]
- [http://www.usconstitution.net/articles.html The United States Constitution Online: The Articles of Confederation] Category:Defunct constitutions Category:United States historical documents Category:Legal history of the United States Category:American Revolution Category:Federalism Category:1781 in law

United States Constitution

The Constitution of the United States is the supreme law of the United States of America. It was completed on September 17, 1787, with its adoption by the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and was later ratified by special conventions in each of the original thirteen states. It created a federal union of sovereign states, and a federal government to operate that union. It replaced the less defined union that had existed under the Articles of Confederation. It took effect in 1789 and has served as a model for the constitutions of numerous other nations. nations] nations nations nations

History

During the Revolutionary War, the thirteen states first formed a very weak central government—with the Congress being its only component—under the Articles of Confederation. Congress lacked any power to impose taxes, and, because there was no national executive or judiciary, relied on state authorities (who were often uncooperative) to enforce all of its acts. It also had no authority to override tax laws and tariffs between states. The Articles required unanimous consent from all the states before they could be amended and states took the central government so lightly that their representatives were often absent. For lack of a quorum, Congress was frequently blocked from making even moderate changes. In September 1786, commissioners from five states met in the Annapolis Convention to discuss adjustments to the Articles of Confederation that would improve commerce. They invited state representatives to convene in Philadelphia to discuss improvements to the federal government. After debate, the Confederation Congress endorsed the plan to revise the Articles of Confederation on February 21, 1787. Twelve states (Rhode Island being the only exception) accepted this invitation and sent delegates to convene in May 1787. The resolution calling the Convention specified its purpose was to propose amendments to the Articles, but the Convention decided to propose a rewritten Constitution. The Philadelphia Convention voted to keep deliberations secret and decided to draft a new fundamental government design which eventually stipulated that only 9 of the 13 states would have to ratify for the new government to go into effect. These actions were criticized by some as exceeding the convention's mandate and existing law. However, Congress, noting dissatisfaction with the Articles of Confederation government, unanimously agreed to submit the proposal to the states despite what some perceived as the exceeded terms of reference. On September 17, 1787, the Constitution was completed in Philadelphia, and the new government it prescribed came into existence on March 4, 1789, after fierce fights over ratification in many of the states. The original transcribed copy of the Constitution is on permanent display at the National Archives in Washington, D.C. For a list of those who signed the Constitution, see List of signatories of the United States Constitution.

The Constitution

The U.S. Constitution styles itself the "supreme law of the land." Courts have interpreted this phrase to mean that when laws (including state constitutions) that have been passed by state legislatures, or by the (national) U.S. Congress, are found to conflict with the federal constitution, these laws are ultra vires and have no effect. Decisions by the Supreme Court over the course of two centuries have repeatedly confirmed and strengthened the doctrine of Constitutional supremacy, or the supremacy clause. supremacy clause The Constitution guarantees the legitimacy of the American state by invoking the American electorate. The people exercise authority through state actors both elected and appointed; some of these positions are provided for in the Constitution. State actors can change the fundamental law, if they wish, by amending the Constitution or, in the extreme, by drafting a new one. Different kinds of public officials have varying levels of limitations on their power. Elected officials can only continue in office if they are reelected at periodic intervals; appointed officials serve, in general, at the pleasure of the person or authority that appointed them, and may be removed at any time. The exception to this practice is the lifetime appointment by the President of Justices of the Supreme Court and other federal judges; the justification for this exception is that once appointed for life, these judges are presumed capable of acting free of political obligations or influence.

Principles of government

Although the Constitution has been amended several times since it was first adopted, its basic principles remain the same now as in 1789. There are three branches of the national government—executive, legislative, and judicial—and they are separate and distinct from one another. The powers given to each are in theory balanced and checked by the powers of the other two. Each branch ideally serves as a check on potential excesses of the others. This is known as "separation of powers", and was partly taken from the ideas of the Baron de Montesquieu. Baron de Montesquieu.]] The United States is federal in nature. Powers enumerated in the Constitution are given to the Federal Government, and all other, unenumerated, powers remain with the states or the people. (See the Tenth Amendment.) The Constitution, together with laws passed according to its provisions and treaties entered into by the president and approved by the Senate, stands above all other laws, executive acts, and regulations. Beginning with the case of Marbury v. Madison, the United States judiciary has engaged in judicial review. This means that the federal courts will examine duly enacted laws, and, if they are found to be unconstitutional, will overturn them. They also examine the acts of public officials—up to and including those of the president. (See United States v. Nixon.) Since the enactment of the Fourteenth Amendment, all persons have been equally entitled to the law's protection. All states are equal and in principle none can officially receive special treatment from the federal government. Within the limits of the Constitution, each state must recognize and respect the laws of the others. State governments, like the federal government, must be republican in form, with final legitimacy resting with the people. By means defined in the Fifth Article of the Constitution, Congress may propose amendments to the Constitution. Moreover, any two thirds of the states may themselves initiate a convention for proposing amendments. When ratified as specified, all amendments are considered part of the Constitution.

Preamble

The Preamble reads: :We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. The Preamble neither grants any powers nor inhibits any actions; it only explains the rationale behind the Constitution. The preamble, especially the first three words ("We the people"), is one of the most quoted and referenced sections of the Constitution.

Articles of the Constitution

The remainder of the constitution consists of seven articles.

Legislative power

100px Article One establishes the legislative branch of government, U.S. Congress, which includes the House of Representatives and the Senate. The Article establishes the manner of election and qualifications of members of each House. In addition, it outlines legislative procedure and indicates the powers of the legislative branch. Finally, it establishes limits on federal and state legislative power.

Executive power

100px Article Two describes the presidency (the executive branch): procedures for the selection of the president, qualifications for office, the oath to be affirmed, the powers and duties of the office, and procedures for selection. It also provides for the office of Vice President of the United States, and specifies that the Vice President succeeds to the presidency if the President is incapacitated or resigns. The article nominally makes the Vice President the presiding officer of the Senate, but in practice the Vice President only serves as such under limited circumstances. Article Two also provides for the impeachment and removal from office of civil officers (the President, Vice President, judges, and others). (See presidential system).

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