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Rhodes Scholarship

Rhodes Scholarship

The Rhodes Scholarships were created by Englishman Cecil John Rhodes and have been awarded to applicants annually since 1902 by the Oxford-based Rhodes Trust on the basis of academic qualities, as well as those of character. They provide the successful candidate with two years of study at the University of Oxford in England, possibly extended for a third year. When Rhodes died in 1902, his will stipulated that the greater part of his fortune was to go toward the establishment of a scholarship fund to reward applicants who exhibited worthy qualities of intellect, character, and physical ability.

Standards

The requirements for applicants are high. Rhodes' legacy specified four standards by which applicants were to be judged:
- literary and scholastic attainments;
- energy to use one's talents to the full, as exemplified by fondness for and success in sports;
- truth, courage, devotion to duty, sympathy for and protection of the weak, kindliness, unselfishness and fellowship;
- moral force of character and instincts to lead, and to take an interest in one's fellow beings. Rhodes' legacy originally provided for scholarships for the British colonies, the United States, and Germany. These three were chosen so that "an understanding between the three great powers will render war impossible." Rhodes, who attended Oxford University, chose his alma mater as the site of his great experiment because he believed its residential colleges provided the ideal environment for intellectual contemplation and personal development.

Changes

There has been some controversy over the original aim of the scholarships, as Rhodes held what many believe today to be racist opinions about the superiority of the Anglo-Saxon race, and his intention was to use the scholarships to educate future foreign leaders in England so that they could help spread English influence when they returned to their home countries. However, it is generally felt that the Rhodes Trust has since rejected these parts of Rhodes's original ideals. An early change was the elimination of the scholarships for Germany during World Wars I and II. No German scholars were chosen from 1914 to 1932 nor from 1939 to 1970. The bequest of Cecil Rhodes was whittled down considerably in the first decades after his death, as various scholarship trustees were forced to pay taxes upon their own deaths. A change occurred in 1929, when an Act of Parliament established a fund separate from the original proceeds of Cecil Rhodes's will. This made it possible to expand the number of scholarships. For example, between 1993 and 1995, scholarships were extended to other countries in the European Community. Because the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 in the UK did not affect wills, it took another Act of Parliament to change the will of Cecil Rhodes to extend selection criteria in 1977 to include women. For at least its first 75 years, scholars usually read for a Bachelor of Arts degree. While that remains an option, the most recent scholars have usually read for an advanced degree.

Allocations

Approximately 90 Scholars are selected worldwide each year. From 2006, 11 scholarships will be suspended for a period of 5 years, and the scholarship for Hong Kong abolished, following its withdrawal from the Commonwealth.
Country2005 (2006)
allocation		1903
allocation
USA3232
Canada112
Newfoundland11
South Africa
(originally Southern Africa)		105
Australia11 (9)
- 		6
India6 (5)-
Germany4 (2)5
New Zealand31
Caribbean Commonwealth2 (1)-
Kenya2-
Pakistan2 (1)-
Zimbabwe
(originally Rhodesia)		23
Bangladesh1 (-)-
Bermuda11
Hong Kong1 (-)-
Jamaica11
Malaysia1 (-)-
Singapore1 (-)-
Uganda1 (-)-
Zambia1-

- Effective 2007

Notable Rhodes Scholarship recipients

Before 1920


- John J. Tigert (Tennessee & Pembroke 1904), U.S. Commissioner of Education, 1921-1928
- Alain L. Locke (Pennsylvania & Hertford 1907), philosopher and Harlem Renaissance patron
- Earnest A. Hooten (Wisconsin 1907), American physical anthropologist
- Albrecht Graf von Bernstorff (Germany & Trinity 1909), German diplomat, executed for conspiracy against Hitler, 1945
- J. H. Hofmeyr (South African College School & Balliol 1910), South African liberal politician
- Ralph V. L. Hartley (Utah & St John's 1910), telephone oscillator inventor
- Edwin P. Hubble (Illinois & Queen's 1910), American astronomer
- Elmer Davis (Indiana 1910), American newsman, Director of the U.S. Office of War Information during World War II
- John Crowe Ransom (Tennessee & Christ Church 1910), poet
- P. Brand Blanshard (Michigan & Merton 1913), philosopher
- Charles R. Clason (Maine & Christ Church 1914), U.S. Congressman (Massachusetts), 1937-1949
- Norman W. Manley MM QC (Jamaica & Jesus 1914), Chief Minister of Jamaica, 1955-1959, Premier of Jamaica, 1959-1962
- Wilder G. Penfield CC (New Jersey & Merton 1914), Canadian neurosurgeon
- John Monk Saunders (Washington & Magdalen 1918), screenwriter of Wings and The Dawn Patrol
- Roland Michener PC CC (Alberta & Hertford 1919), Governor General of Canada, 1967-1974
- Herbert Eugene Clefton (Minnesota 1919), Teacher in Minneapolis, then a Professor at University of Minnesota
- Arthur Stanley Roe (Brisbane), First Rhode Scholar of Australia

1920s


- John Marshall Harlan II (New Jersey & Balliol 1920), Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, 1955-1971
- Lord (Howard) Florey of Adelaide and Marston (Adelaide & Magdalen 1921), Australian pharmacologist, Nobel Prize in Medicine, 1945 (for penicillin)
- Sir Keith Hancock (Australia & Magdalen 1921), Australian historian
- William E. Stevenson (1922), American Olympic gold medalist in 1924, President of Oberlin College (1946-1961), U.S. Ambassador to the Philippines (1961-1965)
- Sir John C. Eccles (Victoria & Magdalen 1925), Australian scientist, Nobel Prize in Medicine, 1963
- J. William Fulbright (Arkansas & Pembroke 1925), U.S. Senator for Arkansas (1945-1974), originator of the Fulbright Fellowship program
- Robert J. van de Graaff (Alabama & Queen's 1925), inventor of the eponymous Van de Graaff generator
- Robert Penn Warren (Kentucky & New College 1928), American poet and critic
- Cleanth Brooks (Louisiana & Exeter 1929), American literary critic
- George F. G. Stanley CC (Alberta & Keble 1929), Canadian historian, designer of Canadian flag, Lieutenant-Governor of New Brunswick
- Holbrook Mann MacNeille, prominent mathematician

1930s


- Charles Herbert Little (Brasenose 1930), Director of Canadian Naval Intelligence during World War II
- E. F. Schumacher (Germany & New College 1930), German social theorist
- Carl B. Albert (Oklahoma & St Peter's 1931), Speaker of U.S. House of Representatives (1971-1977), U.S. Congressman (Oklahoma), 1947-1977
- Dean Rusk (North Carolina & St John's 1931), U.S. Secretary of State, 1961-1969
- Adam von Trott zu Solz (Germany & Balliol 1931), German diplomat and anti-Nazi patriot, executed in 1944
- Ivan A. Getting (Massachusetts & Merton 1933), American weapons scientist and co-inventor of GPS technology
- Daniel J. Boorstin (Oklahoma & Balliol 1934), U.S. Librarian of Congress, 1975-1987
- Max Gluckman (Transvaal & Exeter 1934), South African-British-Israeli social anthropologist
- Sir John M. Templeton (Connecticut & Balliol 1934), businessman and founder of Templeton College, Oxford
- George C. McGhee (Oklahoma & Queen's 1934), U.S. Ambassador to Turkey (1952-1953) and to Germany (1963-1968)
- W. R. Jackett (Saskatchewan & Queen's 1934), Chief Justice of the Federal Court of Canada
- Sir Arnold C. Smith (Ontario & Christ Church 1935), first Secretary-General of the Commonwealth
- Walter H. Stockmayer (Jesus 1935), American polymer chemist
- Dan Davin (New Zealand & Balliol 1936), New Zealand novelist and head of Oxford University Press
- Philip Mayer Kaiser (Wisconsin & Balliol 1936), U.S. Ambassador to Mauritania (1961-1964), Hungary (1977-1980), and Austria (1980-1981), U.S. Assistant Secretary of Labor for International Affairs (1949-1953), Special Assistant to Governor Averell Harriman (1955-1959)
- Gordon A. Craig (New Jersey & Balliol 1936), American historian and OSS veteran
- Howard K. Smith (Louisiana & Merton 1937), broadcast journalist
- Courtney Craig Smith (Iowa & Merton 1938), educationalist, President of Swarthmore College
- Byron R. White (Colorado & Hertford 1938), football player, Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, 1962-1993
- Dominic Mintoff (Malta & Hertford 1939), Prime Minister of Malta, 1955-1957 & 1971-1984

1940s


- Sir Zelman Cowen KBE PC AC (Victoria & New College 1941), Australian jurist and academic, Governor General of Australia
- Alastair Gillespie OC (McGill, 1947), Canadian cabinet minister
- Paul J. Bohannan (Arizona & Queen's 1947), American social anthropologist
- Nicholas de B. Katzenbach (New Jersey & Balliol 1947), U.S. Attorney General, 1965-1966, U.S. Under-Secretary of State, 1966-1969
- Bernard W. Rogers (Kansas & University 1947), American general, Supreme Allied Commander, NATO
- Stansfield Turner (Illinois & Exeter 1947), American admiral, Director of Central Intelligence, 1977-1981
- James M. Hester (California & Pembroke 1947), First Rector of the United Nations University, President of New York University
- Eric Prabhakar (India & Christ Church 1948), Indian Olympic athlete
- Guy M. Davenport (North Carolina & Merton 1948), American writer and man of letters
- R. W. Burchfield (New Zealand & Magdalen 1949), New Zealand lexicographer, editor of the Oxford English Dictionary
- John N. Turner PC CC QC (British Columbia & Magdalen 1949), Canadian liberal leader and Prime Minister of Canada, 1984

1950s


- James H. Billington (New Jersey & Balliol 1950), U.S. Librarian of Congress, 1987-
- John Brademas (Indiana & Brasenose 1950), American politician, President of New York Universiy, 1981-1992, U.S. Congressman (Indiana), 1959-1981
- Tanjore R. Anantharaman (India & Trinity 1951), Indian metallurgist
- Richard N. Gardner (New York & Balliol 1951), U.S. Ambassador to Italy (1977-1981) and to Spain (1993-1997)
- Stuart Hall (Jamaica & Merton 1951), British cultural theorist
- Thomas A. Bartlett (Oregon & University 1951), President of the American University in Cairo, 1963-1969, Interim President of AUC, 2002-2003; Chancellor of the University of Alabama System, 1981-1989; Chancellor of the State University of New York, 1994-1996
- John R. Searle (Wisconsin & Christ Church 1952), American philosopher
- James A. Gobbo CVO AC QC (Victoria & Magdalen 1952), Australian Supreme Court Judge and Governor of Victoria
- Elliott H. Levitas (Georgia & University 1952), U.S. Congressman (Georgia), 1975-1985
- Guido Calabresi (Connecticut & Magdalen 1953), American legal academic, Judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 2nd Circuit, Professor and Dean at Yale Law School
- Ronald M. Dworkin (Rhode Island & Magdalen 1953), American legal philosopher
- Edward de Bono (Malta & Christ Church 1953), Maltese psychologist, physician and writer.
- Julian Ogilvie Thompson (Diocesan College & Worcester 1953), businessman
- Robert J. L. Hawke (Western Australia & University 1953), Prime Minister of Australia, 1983-1991
- Laurie Ackermann (Cape Province & Worcester 1954), Justice of the Constitutional Court of South Africa
- Lord (Leonard) Hoffman (South African College School & Queen's 1954), UK Lord Justice of Appeal
- Norman F. Cantor (Manitoba & Oriel 1954), Canadian historian of the Middle Ages
- Richard G. Lugar (Indiana & Pembroke 1954), U.S. Senator for Indiana, 1977-
- Paul S. Sarbanes (Maryland & Balliol 1954), U.S. Senator for Maryland, 1977-2007
- Robert O. Paxton (Virginia & Merton 1954), American historian of France
- Ranjit Roy Chaudhury (India & Magdalen 1955), medical scientist
- Reynolds Price (North Carolina & Merton 1955), American poet and novelist
- Lord (Johan) Steyn (Cape Province & University 1955), UK Lord Justice of Appeal
- Virendra Dayal (India & University 1956), Under-Secretary-General of the United Nations
- Neil L. Rudenstine (Connecticut & New College 1956), American educator, President of Harvard University, 1991-2001
- Arthur Kroeger CC (Alberta & Pembroke 1956), Canadian civil servant and diplomat, Chancellor of Carleton University, 1993-2002
- Ranjit Bhatia (India & Jesus 1957), Indian Olympic athlete
- Robert I. Rotberg (New Jersey & University 1957), American political scientist
- Kristoffer Kristofferson (California & Merton 1958), American actor and musician
- Joseph S. Nye, Jr. (New Jersey & Exeter 1958), American political scientist, Chairman of the National Intelligence Council (1993-1994), Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs (1994-1995), Dean of the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard
- Jonathan Kozol (Massachusetts & Magdalen 1958), American writer and social activist
- Manmohan Malhoutra (India & Balliol 1958), Assistant Secretary-General of the Commonwealth

1960s


- Richard F. Celeste (Ohio & Exeter 1960), Governor of Ohio (1983-1991), Director of the Peace Corps, U.S. Ambassador to India, President of Colorado College
- Girish Karnad (India & Lincoln 1960), Indian Kannada-language playwright and film actor
- Lester C. Thurow (Montana & Balliol 1960), American economist and author, professor of economics at MIT
- David H. Souter (New Hampshire & Magdalen 1961), Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, 1990-
- David B. Frohnmayer (Oregon & Wadham 1962), President of the University of Oregon, 1994-; Attorney General of Oregon, 1980-1991
- Rex D. Adams (West Virginia & Merton 1962), Chairman of the Board of PBS, Dean of the Fuqua School of Business, Duke University
- Walter B. Slocombe (Michigan & Balliol 1963), U.S. Under Secretary of Defense for Policy, 1994-2001, Senior Advisor for National Defense for the CPA, Baghdad, 2003
- David L. Boren (Oklahoma & Balliol 1963), Governor of Oklahoma, 1975-1979); U.S. Senator for Oklahoma, 1979-1994; President of the University of Oklahoma
- Bryan Gould (New Zealand & Balliol 1963), British politician, Labour MP for Dagenham
- R. James Woolsey (Oklahoma & St John's 1963), Director of Central Intelligence, 1993-1995
- Montek Ahluwalia (India & Magdalen 1964), Indian economist, first independent evaluator of IMF
- Wasim Sajjad (Pakistan & Wadham 1964), Pakistani politician and lawyer, Interim President of Pakistan, Chairman of the Senate
- J. Gustave Speth (South Carolina & Balliol 1964), Administrator of the United Nations Development Programme, 1993-1999, Dean of School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale
- Larry Pressler (South Dakota & St Edmund Hall 1964), American politician, U.S. Senator for South Dakota, 1979-1997
- William W. Bradley (Missouri & Worcester 1965), American politician, NBA star, U.S. Senator for New Jersey, 1979-1997, and Democratic presidential candidate, 2000
- Aftab Seth (India & Christ Church 1965), Indian Ambassador to Japan
- Daryl Williams AM QC (1965), Australian politician, Liberal Member of the House of Representatives, 1993-2004, Attorney-General of Australia 1996-2003
- Wesley K. Clark (Arkansas & Magdalen 1966), American military officer and politician, Supreme Allied Commander, NATO, 1997-2000; Democratic presidential candidate, 2004
- Terrence F. Malick (Oklahoma & Magdalen 1966), American film director of The Thin Red Line
- Michael Spence (Ontario & Magdalen 1966), Canadian economist, Nobel Prize in Economics for 2001
- Right Reverend Thomas Frerking O.S.B. (Harvard 1966), Abbot, Abbey of St. Mary and St. Louis
- David E. Kendall (Indiana & Worcester 1966), American lawyer, President Clinton's personal lawyer
- Deepak Nayyar (India & Balliol 1967), Vice Chancellor of Delhi University
- Thomas H. Allen (Maine & Wadham 1967), American politician, U.S. Congressman (Maine), 1997-
- David C. Hardesty, Jr. (West Virginia & Queen's 1967), President of West Virginia University
- Stephen A. Oxman (New Jersey & New College 1967), U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for European and Canadian Affairs, 1993-1994
- William J. Clinton (Arkansas & University 1968), American politician, 42nd President of the United States, 1993-2001, Governor of Arkansas, 1979-1981 & 1983-1993
- Robert B. Reich (New Hampshire & University 1968), American commentator and author, U.S. Secretary of Labor, 1993-1997
- Dennis C. Blair (Virginia & University 1968), American Admiral, commander of U.S. Pacific Command, 1999-2002, President of Institute for Defense Analyses, 2003-present.
- Robert D. McCallum, Jr. (Tennessee & Christ Church 1968), American lawyer, U.S. Associate Attorney General, 2003-
- Boisfeuillet Jones, Jr. (Georgia & Exeter 1968), Publisher and CEO of The Washington Post
- Strobe Talbott (Ohio & Magdalen 1968), American diplomat and journalist, U.S. Deputy Secretary of State (1994-2001), President of the Brookings Institution
- William A. Fletcher (Washington & Merton 1968), Judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit
- Rex Murphy (Newfoundland & St Edmund Hall 1968), Canadian commentator
- Danny Williams PC QC (Newfoundland), lawyer and businessman, Canadian politician, Premier of Newfoundland and Labrador
- Ira Magaziner (Rhode Island & Balliol 1969), White House Senior Aide, 1993-1999, originator of ICANN
- Christopher R. Laidlaw (New Zealand & Merton 1969), New Zealand All Black, diplomat, MP, author, Human Rights Commissioner and Race Relations Conciliator
- Robert K. Rae PC OC QC (Ontario & Balliol 1969), Canadian politician, Premier of Ontario

1970s


- Geoffrey Robertson QC (Sydney, 1970), barrister and international human rights activist
- Richard H. Trainor (Rhode Island & Merton 1970), Principal of Kings College London
- Franklin D. Raines (Washington & Magdalen 1971), Chairman and CEO of Fannie Mae, 1999-2004; Director of the Office of Management and Budget, 1996-1998
- Kurt L. Schmoke (Maryland & Balliol 1971), Mayor of Baltimore, 1987-1999; Dean of Howard University School of Law
- James R. Atlas (Illinois & New College 1971), American writer (The New Yorker)
- James Fallows (California & Queen's 1970), American writer (The Atlantic Monthly)
- Geoffrey I. Gallop (Western Australia 1972), Premier of Western Australia, 2001-
- Michael E. Kinsley (Michigan & Magdalen 1972), American journalist (Los Angeles Times), founder of Slate magazine, editor of The New Republic
- Thomas F. Birmingham (Massachusetts & Exeter 1972), President of the Massachusetts Senate, Candidate for Democratic nomintion for Governor of Massachusetts, 2002
- Kim C. Beazley (1973), Australian politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Australia, Leader of the Opposition
- Richard N. Haass (Florida & Wadham & St Antony's 1973), President of the Council on Foreign Relations, Director of the Policy Planning Staff at the U.S. Department of State, 2001-2003
- E. J. Dionne (Massachusetts & Balliol 1973), American journalist and Washington Post columnist
- Paul Blustein (Wisconsin & Merton 1973), American author and journalist (The Washington Post)
- Sir Rod Eddington (Western Australia & Lincoln 1974), Former CEO of British Airways
- C. Thomas McMillan (Maryland & University 1974), NBA basketball player, U.S. Congressman (Maryland), 1987-1993
- Walter Isaacson (Louisiana & Pembroke 1974), author, President of the Aspen Institute, Managing Editor of Time magazine (1995-2001), Chairman and CEO of CNN
- Elliot F. Gerson (Connecticut & Magdalen 1974), American Secretary of the Rhodes Trust, Vice President of the Aspen Institute, Deputy Attorney General of Connecticut
- Edwin Cameron (South Africa-at-Large & Keble 1975), Justice of the Constitutional Court of South Africa, ANC lawyer and AIDS activist
- Larry J. Sabato (Virginia & Queen's 1975), American political scientist
- Russell D. Feingold (Wisconsin & Magdalen 1975), U.S. Senator for Wisconsin, 1993-
- Michael Sandel (Massachusetts & Balliol 1975), American political philosopher and professor at Harvard University
- Melvin J. Reynolds (Illinois & Lincoln 1975), U.S. Congressman (Illinois), 1993-1995
- Malcolm Turnbull (Sydney 1978), Australian lawyer, banker, and politician, Liberal Member of the House of Representatives, 2004-
- C. David Naylor (Ontario & Hertford 1979), Canadian medical researcher, President of the University of Toronto
- Nancy-Ann Min DeParle (Tennessee & Balliol 1979), Administrator of the U.S. Health Care Financing Administration, 1997-2000

1980s


- Elsdon Storey (Victoria & Magdalen & Wolfson 1980), Australian neurologist
- Tony Abbott (Sydney 1980), Australian politician, Member of the House of Representatives, 1994-
- Clark Kent Ervin (Texas & St Catherine's 1980), Inspector General of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security
- Eric Lander (Princeton & Jesus College 1981), MIT Professor of Biology and Director of the Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard
- Nicholas D. Kristof (Oregon & Magdalen 1981), New York Times reporter and columnist
- Heather A. Wilson (New Hampshire & Jesus 1982), U.S. Congresswoman (New Mexico), 1998-
- Richard Flanagan (Tasmania 1983), Australian author, winner of the 2002 Commonwealth Writers Prize
- David B. Vitter (Louisiana & Magdalen 1983), U.S. Senator (Louisiana), 2005-
- Christopher Eisgruber (Oregon & University 1983), Provost of Princeton University
- George Stephanopoulos (Ohio & Balliol 1984), moderator of ABC's This Week and communications director for Bill Clinton's 1992 presidential campaign
- Brian Greene (New York & Magdalen 1984), American physicist and string theorist
- Robert Malley (Connecticut & Magdalen 1984), Director for Near East and South Asian Affairs, National Security Council, 1997-2001
- Naomi R. Wolf (Connecticut & New College 1985), American author and feminist social critic
- Susan E. Rice (District of Columbia & New College 1986), U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs, 1997-2001
- Jacob Weisberg (Illinois & New College 1987), journalist and editor of Slate magazine
- Atul A. Gawande (Ohio & Balliol 1987), surgeon and New Yorker medical writer
- David Chalmers (Australia & Lincoln 1987), Australian philosopher of mind
- David E. Kirk (New Zealand & Worcester 1987), captain of the New Zealand All Blacks who won the inaugural Rugby Union World Cup in 1987, CEO of Australian media company John Fairfax Holdings
- Brad R. Carson (Oklahoma & Trinity 1989), U.S. Congressman (Oklahoma), 2001-2005

1990s


- P. Robert Jindal (Louisiana & New College 1992), U.S. Congressman (Louisiana), 2005-, U.S. Assistant Secretary of Health and Human Services, 2001-2004, President of the University of Louisiana System, 1999-2001
- Nikolas Gvosdev (Florida & St Antony's 1992), editor of The National Interest
- Noah Feldman (Massachusetts & Christ Church 1992), American author, NYU law professor, constitutional advisor to the Coalition Provisional Authority in Iraq, 2003-2004
- Nader Mousavizadeh (Denmark & Christ Church 1992), Assistant for Political Affairs to the UN Secretary-General
- Peter Beinart (Massachusetts & University 1993), editor of The New Republic
- Randal Pinkett (Rutgers & University 1994), contestant on The Apprentice television show
- Jamie Wall (University of Wisconsin-Madison 1994), Democratic candidate for U.S. House of Representatives, 2005-2006
- Annette Salmeen (California & St John's 1997), American Olympic gold medalist in swimming at Atlanta in 1996
- Hamed Rahim Wardak (Virginia & Magdalen 1997), Private Envoy to the United States of the Afghan Minister of Finance, 2002-2003
- Noam Scheiber (Louisiana & Magdalen 1998), American journalist (The New Republic) and blogger
- Rachel Simmons (New York & Lincoln 1998), American author of Odd Girl Out: The Hidden Culture of Aggression in Girls (Harcourt, 2002)

2000s


- Thum Ping Tjin aka P.J. Thum (Singapore and Hertford 2002), First Singaporean to swim the English Channel.

Undated


- W. L. Morton, Canadian historian

Centenary degrees

In recognition of the centenary of the foundation of the Rhodes Trust in 2003, five scholars were awarded honorary degrees to Oxford:
- John Brademas (Indiana & Brasenose 1950), President of New York Universiy, U.S. Congressman (Indiana), 1959-1981
- Robert J. L. Hawke (Western Australia & University 1953), Prime Minister of Australia, 1983-1991
- Rex Nettleford OM (Jamaica 1957), Vice-Chancellor of the University of the West Indies, author, dance director
- David R. Woods (Natal & University 1963), Vice-Chancellor of Rhodes University

Notable Universities

The universities of Harvard, Yale and Princeton hold the top three spots, respectively, in terms of largest number of U.S. Rhodes Scholarships won by their graduates. The United States Naval Academy had the largest number of winners in the 2006 school year with a total of four. Duke, Yale and the U. of Chicago followed with three each and Princeton produced one scholar. Harvard College had none, only the second time since the inception of the scholarship it failed to produce a winner. Harvard has dominated the competition over the years, with 316 winners total according to university statistics. The American secretary of the Rhodes Trust, Elliot Gerson, who is himself a Harvard graduate, said Harvard has produced 313 winners since the scholarship was first awarded. (http://daily.nysun.com/Repository/getFiles.asp?Style=OliveXLib:ArticleToMail&Type=text/html&Path=NYS/2005/11/21&ID=Ar00105&Mode=HTML) Occasionally, graduate students enrolled at Harvard win the scholarship, but they are usually endorsed by the undergraduate schools and are not added to Harvard's official tally of winners. The College of William and Mary, a relative newcomer to the competition, produced its first Rhodes Scholar in 1988, followed by one in 1997 and two in the same year, 2000, for a total of five.
McGill University has produced [http://www.athletics.mcgill.ca/varsity_sports_article.ch2?article_id=755 the greatest number of Rhodes Scholars from outside the US] since the award's inception, with 126. Mount Allison University has produced more Rhodes Scholars per capita than any other university in the British Commonwealth. The latest nominated in the year 2005 for the year 2006 was the school's 46th scholar.
Williams College, in Williamstown, Mass has produced the greatest number of Rhodes Scholars from American Liberal Arts Colleges.
Taking into consideration the total number of graduates of each of the leading colleges since the first year of the scholarship shows that each has produced, on average, between 2.5 and 3.0 award winners per thousand graduates over the course of the competition.
Data Compiled from published reports by the respective institutions.
Adapted from the New York Times
- Adapted from Williams College

Former Trustees


- Albert Henry George Grey, 4th Earl Grey
- Douglas Hogg, 1st Viscount Hailsham
- Rudyard Kipling

External links


- [http://www.ru.ac.za/ Rhodes University - South Africa]
- [http://www.rhodeshouse.ox.ac.uk/ The Rhodes Trust]
- [http://www.admin.ox.ac.uk/gsp/finance/rhodes.shtml Oxford's Rhodes Scholarships Summary]
- [http://www.rhodesscholar.org/ The American Secretary, Rhodes Scholarship Trust]
- [http://www.usyd.edu.au/su/rhodes/ The Australian Rhodes Scholarship]
- [http://www.rhodes.bm/ Bermuda Selection Committee]
- [http://www.rhodes-deutschland.de/ The Rhodes Trust in Germany]
- [http://www.rhodesindia.com/ Indian Rhodes Scholarships]
- [http://www.rhodes-caribbean.com/ Committee for Jamaica and the Commonwealth Caribbean]
- [http://www.nzvcc.ac.nz/default.aspx?l=4&p=64 New Zealand Vice-Chancellors' Committee page on Rhodes Scholarships]
- [http://www.rhodescentenary.co.za/Mandela_frame.htm The Mandela Rhodes Foundation in South Africa]
- [http://www.rhodestrust.org.za/ Southern African Rhodes Scholarships]
- [http://www.rhodesproject.com/ The First In-Depth Study of Rhodes Women] Category:University of Oxford Category:Scholarships Category:Financial aid

England

:For an explanation of often-confusing terms like England, (Great) Britain and United Kingdom see British Isles (terminology). England is a nation and the largest and most populous constituent country of the United Kingdom accounting for more than 83% of the total UK population. It occupies most of the southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain and shares land borders with fellow home nations Scotland, to the north, and Wales, to the west. Elsewhere, it is bordered by the sea. England is named after the Angles, one of a number of Germanic tribes believed to have originated in Angeln in Northern Germany, who settled in England in the 5th and 6th centuries. It has not had a distinct political identity since 1707, when Great Britain was established as a unified political entity; however, it has a legal identity separate from those of Scotland and Northern Ireland, as part of the entity "England and Wales;". England's largest city, London, is also the capital of the United Kingdom.

History

Main article: History of England England has been inhabited for at least 500,000 years, although the repeated Ice Ages made much of Britain uninhabitable for extended periods until as recently as 20,000 years ago. Stone Age hunter-gatherers eventually gave way to farmers and permanent settlements, with a spectacular and sophisticated megalithic civilisation arising in western England some 4,000 years ago. It was replaced around 1,500 years later by Celtic tribes migrating from Western and continental Europe, mainly from France. These tribes were known collectively as "Britons", a name bestowed by Phoenician traders — an indication of how, even at this early date, the island was part of a Europe-wide trading network. The Britons were significant players in continental politics and supported their allies in Gaul militarily during the Gallic Wars with the Roman Republic. This prompted the Romans to invade and subdue the island, first with Julius Caesar's raid in 55 BC, and then the Emperor Claudius' conquest in the following century. The whole southern part of the island — roughly corresponding to modern day England and Wales — became a prosperous part of the Roman Empire. It was finally abandoned early in the 5th century when a weakening Empire pulled back its legions to defend borders on the Continent. Unaided by the Roman army, Roman Britannia could not long resist the Germanic tribes who arrived in the 5th and 6th centuries, enveloping the majority of modern day England in a new culture and language and pushing Romano-British rule back into modern-day Wales and western extremities of England, notably Cornwall and Cumbria. Others emigrated across the channel to modern-day Brittany, thus giving it its name and language (Breton). But many of the Romano-British remained in and were assimilated into the newly "English" areas. The invaders fell into three main groups: the Jutes, the Saxons, and the Angles. As they became more civilised, recognisable states formed and began to merge with one another. (The most well-known state of affairs being the Anglo-Saxon heptarchy.) From time to time throughout this period, one Anglo-Saxon king, recognised as the "Bretwalda" by other rulers, had effective control of all or most of the English; so it is impossible to identify the precise moment when the Kingdom of England was unified. In some sense, real unity came as a response to the Danish Viking incursions which occupied the eastern half of "England" in the 8th century. Egbert, King of Wessex (d. 839) is often regarded as the first king of all the English, although the title "King of England" was first adopted, two generations later, by Alfred the Great (ruled 871–899). The principal legacy left behind in those territories from which the language of the Britons were displaced is that of toponyms. Many of the place-names in England and to a lesser extent Scotland are derived from celtic British names, including London, Dumbarton, York, Dorchester, Dover and Colchester. Several place-name elements are thought to be wholly or partly Brythonic in origin, particularly bre-, bal-, and -dun for hills, carr for a high rocky place, coomb for a small deep valley. Until recently it has been believed that those areas settled by the Anglo-Saxons were uninhabited at the time or the Britons had fled before them. However, genetic studies show that the British were not pushed out to the Celtic fringes – many tribes remained in what was to become England (see C. Capelli et al. A Y chromosome census of the British Isles. Current Biology 13, 979–984, (2003)). Capelli's findings strengthen the research of Steven Bassett of the University of Birmingham; his work during the 1990s suggests that much of the West Midlands was only very lightly colonised with Anglian and Saxon settlements.
This royal throne of kings, this sceptred isle,
This earth of majesty, this seat of Mars,
This other Eden, demi-paradise,
This fortress built by Nature for herself
Against infection and the hand of war,
This happy breed of men, this little world,
This precious stone set in the silver sea,
Which serves it in the office of a wall
Or as a moat defensive to a house,
Against the envy of less happier lands,—
This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England.
The English are great lovers of themselves, and of everything belonging to them; they think that there are no other men than themselves, and no other world but England; and whenever they see a handsome foreigner, they say that 'he looks like an Englishman', and that 'it is a great pity that he should not be an Englishmen'.
Venetian ambassador to England
Early 16th century
Charlotte Augusta Sneyd
Italian Relations of England (p. 20)
Richard II] Richard II] In 1066, William the Conqueror and the Normans conquered the existing Kingdom of England and instituted an Anglo-Norman administration and nobility who, retaining proto-French as their language for the next three hundred years, ruled as custodians over English commoners. Although the language and racial distinctions faded rapidly during the middle ages, the class system born in the Norman/Saxon divide persisted longer — arguably with traces lasting to the modern day. While Old English continued to be spoken by common folk, Norman feudal lords significantly influenced the language with French words and customs being adopted over the succeeding centuries evolving to a Romance-Germanic hybrid of Middle English widely spoken in Chaucer's time. England came repeatedly into conflict with Wales and Scotland, at the time an independent principality and an independent kingdom respectively, as its rulers sought to expand Norman power across the entire island of Britain. The conquest of Wales was achieved in the 13th century, when it was annexed to England and gradually came to be a part of that kingdom for most legal purposes, although in the modern era it is more usually thought of as a separate nation (fielding, for example, its own athletic teams). Norman power in Scotland waxed and waned over the years, with the Scots managing to maintain a varying degree of independence despite repeated wars with the English. Although it was on the whole only a moderately successful power in military terms, England became one of the wealthiest states in medieval Europe, due chiefly to its dominance in the lucrative wool market. The failure of English territorial ambitions in continental Europe prompted the kingdom's rulers to look further afield, creating the foundations of the mercantile and colonial network that was to become the British Empire. The turmoil of the Reformation embroiled England in religious wars with Europe's Catholic powers, notably Spain, but the kingdom preserved its independence as much through luck as through the skill of charismatic rulers such as Elizabeth I. Elizabeth's successor, James I was already king of Scotland (as James VI); and this personal union of the two crowns into the crown of Great Brittaine was followed a century later by the Act of Union 1707, which formally unified England, Scotland and Wales into the Kingdom of Great Britain. This later became the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1801 to 1927) and then the modern state of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (1927 to present) For post-unification history, see history of the United Kingdom.

Politics

Main article: Politics of the United Kingdom, Government of England Since the promulgation of the 1284 Statute of Rhuddlan and the Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542, Wales has shared a legal identity with England as the joint entity of England and Wales. The Act of Union with the Kingdom of Scotland in 1707 created the Kingdom of Great Britain, subsuming England, Wales and Scotland into a single political entity. Scotland, along with Northern Ireland, retain separate legal systems. The duchy of Cornwall also retains some unique rights. All of Great Britain has been ruled by the government of the United Kingdom since that date, although in 1999 the first elections to the newly created Scottish Parliament and National Assembly for Wales left England as the only part of the Union with no devolved assembly or parliament. As all legislation for England is passed by Parliament at Westminster there are some complaints about the ability of non-English Members of Parliament to influence purely English affairs. This apparent anomaly has been highlighted by both English and non-English politicians, often those opposed to devolution, and has become popularly known as the West Lothian question. Administratively, England is something of an anomaly within the UK. Unlike the other three nations, it has no local parliament or government and its administrative affairs are dealt with by a combination of the UK government, the UK parliament and a number of England-specific quangos, such as English Heritage. There are calls from some for a devolved English Parliament and from others for the dissolution of the UK and an independent England. The current Labour government favoured the establishment of regional administration, claiming that England was too large to be governed as a sub-state entity. A referendum on this issue in North East England on 4 November 2004 decisively rejected the proposal. Some criticised the English regional proposals for not decentralising enough, saying that they amounted not to devolution, but to little more than local government reorganisation, with no real power being removed from central government. The English regions would not even have had the limited powers of the Welsh Assembly, much less the tax-varying and legislative powers of the Scottish Parliament. Rather, power was simply re-allocated within the region, with little new resource allocation and no real prospects of Assemblies being able to change the pattern of regional aid. Responsibility for regional transport was added to the proposals late in the process. This was perhaps crucial in the North East, where resentment at the Barnett Formula, which delivers greater regional aid to adjacent Scotland, was a significant impetus for the North East devolution campaign. There has also been a campaign for a Cornish assembly along Welsh lines by groups such as Mebyon Kernow, which recently collected 50,000 signatures in support. Some eurosceptics believe that the establishment of English regions as administrative entities is designed to undermine the concept of English nationhood and more easily fit England into a European federal model. Conventionally the national capital of England is London, although technically it would be more exact to call London the capital of "England and Wales" given England's lack of a distinctive political identity separate from the Principality. Winchester served as the country's first national capital until some time in the late 11th century after the Norman Conquest. The City of London became England's commercial capital, while the City of Westminster (where the Royal court was located) became the political capital. These roles have, broadly speaking, been maintained to the present day.

Subdivisions

Main article: Subdivisions of England Historically, the highest level of local government in England was the county. These divisions had emerged from a range of units of old, pre-unification England, whether they were Kingdoms, such as Essex and Sussex; Duchies, such as Yorkshire, Cornwall and Lancashire or simply tracts of land given to some noble, as is the case with Berkshire. Until 1867, they were subdivided into smaller divisions called hundreds. These counties all still exist in, or near to, their original form as the traditional counties. In many places, however, they have been heavily modified or abolished outright as administrative counties. This came about due to a number of factors. The fact that the counties were so small meant, and still means, that there was no regional government able to coordinate an overarching plan for the area. This was especially true in the metropolitan areas surrounding the cities, as the county lines were usually drawn up before the industrial revolution and the mass urbanisation of England. The solution was the creation of large metropolitan counties centred on cities. These were later broken up, with several other counties, into unitary authorities, unifying the county and district/borough levels of government. London is a special case, and is the one region which currently has a representative authority as well as a directly elected mayor. The 32 London boroughs and the Corporation of London remain the local form of government in the city. Other than Greater London, the official regions are:
- North East England
- North West England
- Yorkshire and the Humber
- West Midlands
- East Midlands
- East of England
- South West England
- South East England Outside London the regions have very little power and are not accountable to elected representatives; regional authority is placed in the hands of unelected assemblies. If, as now seems unlikely, regions opt to replace these bodies with elected assemblies, local government in England will remain as variable and, some might say, as confusing as ever

Geography

Main articles: Geography of the United Kingdom, Geography of England Geography of England England comprises the central and southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain, plus offshore islands of which the largest is the Isle of Wight. It is bordered to the north by Scotland and to the west by Wales. It is closer to continental Europe than any other part of Britain, divided from France only by a 38 km (24 statute mile or 21 nautical mile) sea gap. Most of England consists of rolling hills, but it is more mountainous in the north with a chain of low mountains, the Pennines, dividing east and west. The dividing line between terrain types is usually indicated by the Tees-Exe line. There is also an area of flat, low-lying marshland in the east, much of which has been drained for agricultural use. The list of England's largest cities is much debated because in British English the normal meaning of city is "a continuously built-up urban area"; these are hard to define and various other definitions are preferred by some people to boost the ranking of their own city. London is by far the largest English city. Manchester and Birmingham vie for second place. A number of other cities, mainly in the north of England, are of substantial size and influence. These include: Liverpool, Leeds, Newcastle, Nottingham, Bristol and Sheffield Using the standard U.S. city limits definition of a city the top six are: Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield, Bradford, Liverpool and Manchester. Note that London is not on this list (Greater London is a region and the City of London is tiny), and that one of the two candidates for the status of England's "second city", Manchester, is down in sixth. In the UK, this method of ranking cities is generally used only by people whose own city is promoted by it. The Channel Tunnel, near Folkestone, links England to the European mainland. The English/French border is halfway along the tunnel. The largest harbour in England is at Poole, on the south-central coast. Internationally, it is the second largest harbour in the world, although this fact is disputed (See harbors for a list of other potential second largest harbours) The highest temperature ever recorded in England is 38.5 °C (101.3 °F) on August 10, 2003 in Kent. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/kent/3153532.stm]. The lowest temperature ever recorded in England is -26.1 °C (-15.0 °F) on January 10, 1982 at Newport in Shropshire. [http://www.metoffice.com/climate/uk/location/england/#temperature]

Major rivers

Shropshire.]]
- Thames
- Severn
- Trent
- Humber
- Yorkshire Ouse
- Tyne
- Mersey
- Dee
- Avon Main article: Waterways in the United Kingdom

Major Conurbations

:See main article: List of towns in England The largest cities in England are much debated but according to the urban area populations (continuous built up areas) these would be the 15 largest conurbations. (Population figures taken from 2001 census) #Greater London (8,278,251) #West Midlands (2,284,093) #Greater Manchester (2,244,931) #Leeds/Bradford (1,499,465) #Tyneside (879,996) #Liverpool (816,216) #Nottingham (666,358) #Sheffield (640,720) #Bristol (551,066) #Brighton/Worthing/Littlehampton (461,181) #Portsmouth (442,252) #Leicester (441,213) #Bournemouth/Poole (383,713) #Reading (369,804) #Teesside (365,323)

Economy

Main article: Economy of England

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of England, Population of England England is both the most populous and the most ethnically diverse nation in the United Kingdom with around 49 million inhabitants, of which roughly a tenth are from non-White ethnic groups. It is one of the most densely populated countries in Europe, second only to the Netherlands. This population is made up of, and descended from, immigrants who have arrived over millennia. The principal waves of migration have been in c. 600 BC (Celts), the Roman period (garrison soldiers from throughout the Empire), 350–550 (Angles, Saxons, Jutes), 800–900 (Vikings, Danes), 1066 (Normans), 1650–1750 (European refugees and Huguenots), 1840–1850 (Irish), 1880–1940 (Irish, Jews), 1950— (Irish, Caribbeans, Africans, South Asians), 1985— (citizens of European Community member states especially Ireland, East Europeans, Iranians, Kurds, refugees). The general prosperity of England as the largest partner of the UK, has also made it a destination for economic migrants particularly from Ireland and Scotland. This segment of English homogeneous society continues to create a diverse and dynamic language that is widely used internationally. The other image of foreign ethnic components in England is still mostly seen as a legacy of the British Empire; especially the Commonwealth of Nations.

English identity

The simplest view is that an English person is someone who is from England and holds British nationality, regardless of his or her racial origin. However, inhabitants of England quite commonly refer to themselves as "British" rather than "English"; centuries of English dominance within the United Kingdom has created a situation where to be English is, as a linguist would put it, an "unmarked" state (i.e. a British person, institution, custom, city, etc. is assumed English unless specified otherwise). The English frequently include their neighbours in the general term "British" while the Scots and Welsh, proud of their separate identities, tend to be more forward about referring to themselves by one of those more specific terms. Although currently a part of England, a notable percentage of those living in Cornwall feel similarly, considering themselves Cornish first. One significant exception is in Northern Ireland, where the Unionist community tend to identify very strongly as "British" (Republicans living in the province are more likely to consider themselves "Irish"), and there is not a "Northern Ireland" or "Northern Irish" identity to the same extent as there is (e.g.) a Scottish one. A person, therefore, using the term "English" to describe him or herself (regardless of personal history) may be going out of his or her way to do so; hence he or she may also be seen (rightly or wrongly, and not necessarily pejoratively) as nationalistic. While Scottish, Welsh, Irish and Cornish patriotism are widely exhibited, specifically English patriotism has often been viewed with suspicion, and most English people feel more comfortable identifying themselves with Britain as a whole. However, this may be to avoid being seen as bullies by their neighbours. The extent to which specifically English patriotism is linked to a right-wing xenophobic agenda has also generated discomfort. The appropriation of English symbols by racist far-right organisations such as the National Front made many people uncomfortable with expressions of Englishness. In recent years, English identity has recently been a topic of debate in the national press, with many English people trying to "reclaim" the term and the flag from the far-right. See English nationalism. One notable exception to the above is in relation to sports, in particular Association football, Rugby football and to a lesser extent Cricket. Transient successes are often accompanied by a revival of the use of the "St George's Cross". While it has not yet replaced the "Union Flag" its use is on the increase. Many English people who have spent a lot of time overseas fall into the habit of referring to themselves as "English". It is the most recognisable designation by speakers of many languages, especially where their own language uses a similar word. Even in other English-speaking countries, people are often perplexed by concepts of "British" or the "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland". All these distinctions are only possible because there is no "English citizenship" or legal definition of Englishness. Moreover, the hazy understanding many people have of the distinction between "England" and "Britain" compounds the confusion. If in doubt, refer to an "English" person as "British": this will always be correct. It may not be as precise as "English", but it will avoid offence in the event the person is actually from a different part of Britain.

Culture

Union Flag Main article: Culture of England
- English literature
  - Sir Thomas Browne
  - Geoffrey Chaucer
  - John Milton
  - William Shakespeare
  - Jane Austen
  - Mary Shelley
  - Charles Dickens
  - Thomas Hardy
  - George Orwell
  - J. R. R. Tolkien
  - C. S. Lewis
  - Douglas Adams
- List of national parks of England and Wales
- Food and Drink
- English folklore
- English art
  - English school of painting
- Music of England

Languages

Music of England.]] As its name suggests, the English language, today spoken by hundreds of millions of people around the world, originated as the language of England, where it remains the principal tongue today (although not officially designated as such). An Indo-European language in Anglo-Frisian branch of the Germanic family, it is closely related to Scots and Frisian. As the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms merged into England, "Old English" emerged; some of its literature and poetry has survived. Used by aristocracy and commoners alike before the Norman Conquest (1066), English was displaced in cultured contexts under the new regime by the Norman French language of the new Anglo-French aristocracy. Its use was confined primarily to the lower social classes while official business was conducted in a mixture of Latin and French. Over the following centuries, however, English gradually came back into fashion among all classes and for all official business except certain traditional ceremonies. (Some survive to this day.) But Middle English, as it had by now become, showed many signs of French influence, both in vocabulary and spelling. During the Renaissance, many words were coined from Latin and Greek origins; and more recent years, Modern English has extended this custom, being always remarkable for its far-flung willingness to incorporate foreign-influenced words. The law does not recognise any language as being official, but English is the only language used in England for general official business. The other national languages of the UK (Welsh, Irish Gaelic and Scottish Gaelic) are confined to their respective nations, and only Welsh is treated by law as an equal to English (and then only for organisations which do business in Wales). The only non-Anglic native spoken language in England is the Cornish language, a Celtic language spoken in Cornwall, which became extinct in the 19th century but has been revived and is spoken in various degrees of fluency by around 3,500 people. This has no official status (unlike Welsh) and is not required for official use, but is nonetheless supported by national and local government under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Cornwall County Council has produced [http://www.cornwall.gov.uk/cornish/strategy/english/engl01.htm a draft strategy] to develop these plans. There is, however, no programme as yet for public bodies to actively promote the language. Scots is spoken by some adjacent to the Anglo-Scottish Border. Most deaf people within England speak British sign language (BSL), a sign language native to Britain. The British Deaf Association estimates that 70,000 people throughout the UK speak BSL as their first or preferred language, but does not give statistics specific to England. Like Cornish, BSL has no official status, but has been granted a degree of recognition by the government. The BBC broadcasts several of its programmes with BSL interpreters. Different languages from around the world, especially from the former British Empire and the Commonwealth of Nations, have been brought to England by immigrants. Many of these are widely spoken within ethnic minority communities, including Punjabi, Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Gujarati, Chinese and Vietnamese. These are often used by official bodies to communicate with the relevant sections of the community, particularly in big cities, but this occurs on an "as needed" basis rather than as the result of specific legislative ordinances. Other languages have also traditionally been spoken by minority populations in England, including Romany. Despite the relatively small size of the nation, there are a large number of distinct English regional accents. Those with particularly strong accents may not be easily understood elsewhere in the country.

Nomenclature

The country is named after the Angles, one of several Germanic tribes who settled the country in the 5th and 6th centuries. There are two distinct linguistic patterns for the name of the country. The majority of European languages use names akin to "England":
- "England" (Danish, German, Swedish, Norwegian)
- "Engeland" (Dutch)
- "Inglismaa" (Estonian)
- "Angleterre" (French)
- "Inghilterra" (Italian)
- "Inglaterra" (Spanish, Portuguese, Galician)
- "Anglia" (Hungarian, Polish, Romanian, Albanian)
- "Anglija" (Russian, Slovene, Lithuanian, Ukrainian)
- "Engleska" (Croatian, Serbian)
- "Αγγλία" ("Anglía") (Greek)
- "Englanti" (Finnish) The Celtic names are quite different:
- "Bro-Saoz" (Breton)
- "Pow Sows" (Cornish)
- "Sasana" (Irish)
- "Sasainn" (Scottish Gaelic)
- "Lloegr" (Welsh) — but "Saeson" for the inhabitants.
- "Sostyn" (Manx Gaelic) Except for Lloegr, which is an ancient geographic term, these names are all derived from the Saxons, another family of Germanic tribes which arrived at about the same time as the Angles. See: Wiktionary:England for a further list of non-English names for England. "England" is sometimes mistakenly used to refer to the entire United Kingdom, the island of Great Britain, or the British Isles. This may offend people from other parts of the UK. Frequently the English use the less-specific "Britain" or "the UK", even when "England" is technically correct and commonly also use "England" when "Britain" would be correct. Alternative names include:
- the slang "Blighty", from the Hindustani "bila yati" meaning "foreign"
- "Albion", an ancient name popularised by Pliny the Elder and Ptolemy in the 1st century. Supposedly referring to the white (Latin alba) cliffs of Dover, this term has also been interpreted as a relative of Alba, today the Scots Gaelic name for Scotland. Whatever its origins, "Albion" originally referred to the whole island of Great Britain and is still sometimes seen that way today — but is more often used for England.
- More poetically, England has been called "this sceptred isle...this other Eden" and "this green and pleasant land", quotations respectively from the poetry of William Shakespeare (in Richard II) and William Blake (And did those feet in ancient time). The inhabitants of England are the English. The slang terms sometimes used for them include "Sassenachs" (from the Scots Gaelic), "Limeys" (in reference to the citrus fruits carried aboard English sailing vessels to prevent scurvy) and "Pom/Pommy" (used in Australian English and New Zealand English), but these may be perceived as offensive. Also see alternative words for British.

Symbols and insignia

alternative words for British.]] The two traditional symbols of England are the St. George's cross (the English flag) and the Three Lions coat of arms (see above), both derived from the great Norman powers that formed the monarchy – the Cross of Aquitaine and the Lions of Anjou. The three lions were first definitely used by Richard I (Richard the Lionheart) in the late 12th century (although it is also possible that Henry I may have bestowed it on his son Henry before then). Historian Simon Schama has argued that the Three Lions are the true symbol of England because the English throne descended down the Angevin line. A red cross acted as a symbol for many Crusaders in the 12th and 13th centuries. It became associated with St George and England, along with other countries and cities (such as Georgia, Milan and the Republic of Genoa), which claimed him as their patron saint and used his cross as a banner. It remained in national use until 1707, when the Union Flag (which English and Scottish ships had used at sea since 1606) was adopted for all purposes to unite the whole of Great Britain under a common flag. The flag of England no longer has much of an official role, but it is widely flown by Church of England properties and at sporting events. (Paradoxically, the latter is a fairly recent development; until the late 20th century, it was commonplace for fans of English teams to wave the Union Flag, rather than the St George's Cross). The rose is widely recognised as the national flower of England and is used in a variety of contexts. Predominantly, this is a red rose (which also symbolises Lancashire), such as the badge of the English Rugby Union team. However, a white rose (which also symbolises Yorkshire) or a "tudor rose" (symbolising the end of the War of the Roses) may also be used on different occasions. The Three Lions badge performs a similar role for the English national football team and English national cricket team.

National anthems

Although England does not have an official anthem of its own, the following are widely regarded as English national hymns:
- "Jerusalem:" Words by William Blake, Music by Hubert Parry
- "I Vow to Thee, My Country": Words by Cecil Spring-Rice, Music by Gustav Holst
- "Land of Hope and Glory": Words by A C Benson, Music by Edward Elgar (although this refers to all of Great Britain, not only England)
- "Nimrod": Music by Edward Elgar "God Save The Queen" (the national anthem for the UK as a whole) is usually played for English sporting events (e.g. football matches), although "Land of Hope and Glory" has also been used as the English anthem for the Commonwealth Games. "Rule Britannia" despite being a song about Britain as a whole was often used for the English national football team when they play against another of the home nations but more recently "God Save The Queen" has been used by both the rugby and football teams. Many believe that English teams should use their own anthems, most popular of which is the use of "Jerusalem".

References


- [http://www.statistics.gov.uk Office of National Statistics]

See also


-
- English language
- English law
- English (people)
- List of monarchs of England – Kings of England family tree
- List of English people
- Angeln (region in northern Germany, presumably the origin of the Angles for whom England is named)
- UK topics
- List of not fully sovereign nations
- Education in England

References

External links


- [http://www.enjoyengland.com/ The official website of the English Tourist Board — Enjoy England]
- [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/state/nations/ BBC Nations]: articles on England and her neighbours Category:Monarchies Category:European countries als:England zh-min-nan:England ko:잉글랜드 ms:England ja:イングランド simple:England th:แคว้นอังกฤษ

Cecil Rhodes

right Cecil John Rhodes (July 5, 1853 – March 26, 1902) was an English businessman and the effective founder of the state of Rhodesia (which was named after him). Rhodesia (later Northern and Southern Rhodesia) eventually became Zambia and Zimbabwe. Rhodes profited greatly by exploiting Southern Africa's natural resources, proceeds of which founded the Rhodes Scholarship upon his death.

England

Rhodes attended the grammar school at Bishop's Stortford. He fell ill shortly after leaving school, and, as his lungs were weak, it was decided that he should visit his brother who had recently emigrated to Natal, in Southern Africa. He arrived in Durban on 1 September, 1870. He brought £3000 his aunt had lent him and used it to invest in diamond diggings in Kimberley.

South Africa

After a brief stay with the Surveyor-General of Natal, Dr. P. C. Sutherland, in Pietermaritzburg, Rhodes joined his brother Herbert on his cotton farm in the Umkomaas valley in Natal. In October 1871 Rhodes left the colony for the diamond fields of Kimberley. He supervised the working of his brother's claim and speculated on his behalf. Among his associates in the early days were John X Merriman and C. D. Rudd, who later became his partner in the De Beers Mining Company.

Education

In 1873 Rhodes left his diamond fields in the care of his partner, Rudd, and sailed for England to complete his studies. He was admitted to Oriel College, Oxford, but stayed for only one term in 1873 and only returned for his second term in 1876. He was greatly influenced by John Ruskin's inaugural lecture at Oxford, which reinforced his own attachment to the cause of British imperialism. Among his Oxford associates were Rochefort Maguire, later a fellow of All Souls College and a director of the British South Africa Company, and Charles Metcalfe. His university career engendered in him an admiration for the Oxford 'system' which was eventually to mature into his scholarship scheme: 'Wherever you turn your eye — except in science — an Oxford man is at the top of the tree'.

Diamonds

Charles Metcalfe. The medal bears Rhodes' portrait.]]Whilst at Oxford, Rhodes continued to prosper in Kimberley. Before his departure for Oxford he and C. D. Rudd had moved from the Kimberley mine to invest in the more costly claims of what was known as old De Beers (Vooruitzicht) which owed its name to Johannes Nicolaas de Beer and his brother, Diederik Arnoldus de Beer, the original owners of the Vooruitzicht farm. In 1874 and 1875 the diamond fields were in the grip of depression, but Rhodes and Rudd were among those who stayed to consolidate their interests. They believed that diamonds would be numerous in the hard blue ground that had been exposed after the softer, yellow layer near the surface had been worked out. During this time the technical problem of clearing out the water that was flooding the mines became serious and he and Rudd obtained the contract for pumping the water out of the three main mines. In April 1880 Rhodes and Rudd launched the De Beers Mining Company after the amalgamation of a number of individual claims. With £200,000 of capital the Company, of which Rhodes was secretary, owned the largest interest in the mine.

Politics

In 1880 Rhodes prepared to enter public life at the Cape. With the incorporation of Griqualand West into the Cape Colony in 1877, the area obtained six seats in the Cape House of Assembly. Rhodes chose the constituency of Barkly West, a rural constituency in which Boer voters predominated. Barkly West remained faithful to Rhodes even after the Jameson Raid, and he continued as its member until his death. The chief preoccupation of the Cape Parliament when Rhodes became a member was the future of Basutoland, where the ministry of Sir Gordon Sprigg was trying to restore order after a rebellion, the Gun War, in 1880. The ministry had precipitated the revolt by applying its disarmament policy to the Basuto. In 1890 Rhodes became Prime Minister of the Cape Colony and implemented laws that would benefit mine and industry owners. He introduced the Glen Grey Act to push Black people from their lands and make way for industrial development. Rhodes' policies were instrumental in the development of British imperial policies in South Africa. He did not, however, have direct political power over the Boer Republic of the Transvaal. He often disagreed with the Transvaal government's policies, and felt he could use his money and his power to overthrow the Boer government and install a British colonial government supporting mine-owners' interests in its place. In 1895 Rhodes supported an attack on the Transvaal, the infamous Jameson Raid. It was a failure, and Rhodes had to resign as Prime Minister of the Cape.

Rhodesia

Rhodes used his wealth to pursue his dream of creating a British Empire in Africa. His British South Africa Company, which had its own paramilitary police force, was used to control Mashonaland, in present-day Zimbabwe. The company had hoped to start a 'new Rand' from the ancient gold mines of the Mashona, but the gold had largely been depleted long before; so many of the white settlers who accompanied the British South Africa Company to Mashonaland became farmers. When the Matabele and the Mashona rebelled against the coming of the white settlers to their land, the British South Africa Company crushed them. The conquered land was named "Rhodesia" in honour of Cecil Rhodes. As the company's influence extended north, land north of the Zambezi was claimed by the company, and named Northern Rhodesia. Today, these territories form the states of Zimbabwe and Zambia.

Vision and views

Zambia Rhodes' vision for Africa was "to paint the map (British) red". To achieve this goal, he was very instrumental in the development of a Cape-Cairo railway route. In his 1877 "Confession of Faith", Rhodes stated, "I contend that we (the British) are the finest race in the world; and that the more of the world we inhabit, the better it is for the human race". Though his prejudice against the African people probably did not motivate his conquests, it was certainly an excuse for his seizure of African resources, and subjugation of its people.

Rhodes' Will and the Rhodes Scholarship

Although Rhodes remained a leading figure in the politics of southern Africa, especially during the Boer War, he was dogged by ill health throughout his relatively short life. In his will, he left his money for the establishment of a secret society that would enable Britain to rule the entire productive world. The exact words are as follows: :To and for the establishment, promotion and development of a Secret Society, the true aim and object whereof shall be for the extension of British rule throughout the world, the perfecting of a system of emigration from the United Kingdom, and of colonisation by British subjects of all lands where the means of livelihood are attainable by energy, labour and enterprise, and especially the occupation by British settlers of the entire Continent of Africa, the Holy Land, the Valley of the Euphrates, the Islands of Cyprus and Candia, the whole of South America, the Islands of the Pacific not heretofore possessed by Great Britain, the whole of the Malay Archipelago, the seaboard of China and Japan, the ultimate recovery of the United States of America as an integral part of the British Empire, the inauguration of a system of Colonial representation in the Imperial Parliament which may tend to weld together the disjointed members of the Empire and, finally, the foundation of so great a Power as to render wars impossible, and promote the best interests of humanity. As a result of his will, the Rhodes Scholarships, which enable foreign nationals to study at the University of Oxford, came into being. Rhodes died in 1902, and was considered at the time one of the wealthiest men in the world. Rhodes' will also left a large area of land on the slopes of Devil's Peak (the "Rhodes Estate" or "Rhodes' Gift") as a campus for the University of Cape Town. Rhodes' house in Cape Town, Groote Schuur, is now the official residence of the President of South Africa. In 2004, he was voted 56th in the Top 100 Great South Africans.

See also


- British South Africa Company
- British South Africa Police
- Leander Starr Jameson
- Pioneer Column

Notes

Complete Works of Mark Twain. [http://www.earthsharing.org.au/twain2.html Following The Equator (Volume II)]. Chapter XXXII: Cecil Rhodes. Retrieved June 18, 2005.

External links


- http://www.bennett-family.dsl.pipex.com/rhodes.htm Banquet in Rhodes' honour held in London 1895
- http://www.worldtrek.org/odyssey/africa/063099/063099monicarhodes.html
- http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/people/rhodes-cj.htm
- http://www.bartleby.com/65/rh/Rhodes-C.html
- http://www.pbase.com/glassbottle/rhodes_memorial Photographs of Rhodes Memorial, Cape Town, South Africa ja:セシル・ローズ Rhodes, Cecil Rhodes, Cecil Rhodes, Cecil Rhodes, Cecil Category:British Empire Category:History of Zimbabwe Rhodes, Cecil Rhodes, Cecil

Oxford

: This article is about the city of Oxford in England. For other cities and other meanings, see Oxford (disambiguation). Oxford is a city and local government district in Oxfordshire, England, with a population of 134,248 (2001 census). It is home to the University of Oxford, the oldest university in the English-speaking world. It is known as the "city of dreaming spires", a term coined by Matthew Arnold in reference to the harmonious architecture of the university buildings. The Oxford suburb of Cowley has a long history of carmaking, and still produces Minis. Oxford is twinned with Bonn in Germany, Grenoble in France, León in Nicaragua, Leiden in the Netherlands, and Perm in Russia. All of these are university towns.

History

Oxford was first occupied in Saxon times, and was initially known as "Oxenaforda". It began with the foundations of St Frideswide's nunnery in the 8th century, and was first mentioned in written records in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for the year 912. In the 10th century Oxford became an important military frontier town between the kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex and was on several occasions raided by Danes. St Frideswide is the patron saint of both the city and university. The University of Oxford is first mentioned in 12th century records. Oxford's earliest colleges were