:: wikimiki.org ::

Rafael E. Martinez

Rafael E. Martinez

Rafael E. Martinez was the 2003 United States' candidate to serve on the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, the human rights arm of the Organization of American States. Since his candidacy was unsuccessful, as of January 2004 there was no U.S. national on the seven-member Commission for the first time since its inception in 1959. Born in Cuba, Martinez made a career out of medical malpractice and health law. He is the brother of Florida Senator Mel Martinez.

2003

2003 (MMIII) is a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. It was designated the:
- International Year of Freshwater
- European Disability Year
- Blog Year See also Wikipedia's almanac of events for this year.

Events

January

- January 1 - Luíz Inácio Lula Da Silva becomes the 37th President of Brazil.
- January 1 - Pascal Couchepin becomes President of the Confederation in Switzerland.
- January 8 - US Airways flight 5481 crashes at Charlotte-Douglas International Airport in Charlotte, North Carolina killing all 21 people aboard.
- January 15 - The United States Supreme Court hands down its decision in Eldred v. Ashcroft allowing the extension of copyright terms in the U.S.
- January 24 - The new United States Department of Homeland Security officially begins operation.
- January 25 - Central Line train crashes into the tunnel wall at Chancery Lane station in London, injuring 34 people.
- January 25 - An international group of volunteers left London and headed for Baghdad to act as voluntary human shields, hoping to avert a U.S. invasion.
- January 30 - Iraq disarmament crisis: The leaders of Britain, Spain, Italy, Portugal, Hungary, Poland, Denmark, and the Czech Republic release a statement, the letter of the eight, demonstrating support for the United States' plans for an invasion of Iraq.

February

February
- February 1 - The Space Shuttle Columbia disintegrates over Texas upon reentry, killing all seven astronauts onboard.
- February 1 - In Northern Ireland, The Protestant UDA Belfast leader John Gregg is killed by a loyalist faction.
- February 3 - The worldwide movie premiere of Shanghai Knights was held at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood.
- February 5 - Iraq disarmament crisis: U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell addresses the UN Security Council on Iraq.
- February 9 - Cricket World Cup begins in South Africa.
- February 15 - Global protests against Iraq war - more than ten million people protest in over 600 cities worldwide, the largest war protest to take place before the war occurred.
- February 17 - Antwerp Diamond Center in Belgium opens its vaults after weekend and discovers that unknown burglars had stolen diamonds worth $100 million - largest diamond theft so far.
- February 26 - An American businessman is admitted to the Vietnam France Hospital in Hanoi, Vietnam. WHO doctor Carlo Urbani reports the unusual highly contagious disease to WHO. Both the businessman and Carlo Urbani die of SARS in March.

March

- March 1 - Iraq disarmament crisis: The United Arab Emirates calls for Iraqi president Saddam Hussein to step down to avoid war. The sentiment is later echoed by Bahrain and Kuwait
- March 1 - The Turkish parliment vetos the access of the U.S troops to airbases in Turkey in order to attack Iraq from the north. The Bush administration starts working on the B Plan, namely attacking Iraq from the south, through the Persian Gulf.
- March 1 - The Federal Law Enforcement Training Center, the United States Customs Service, and the United States Secret Service moves to the United States Department of Homeland Security
- March 1 - Boxer Roy Jones Jr. beats John Ruiz to become WBA champion
- March 1 - War on Terrorism: Authorities in Pakistan capture Khalid Shaikh Mohammed, the suspected mastermind of the September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attacks along with money man Mustafa Ahmed al-Hawsawi.
- March 1 - Ohio celebrates its bicentennial statehood.
- March 5 - The Supreme Court of the United States by a 5-4 margin upholds California's "three strikes and you're out" law.
- March 11 - Iraq disarmament crisis: Iraqi fighters threaten two U.S. U-2 surveillance planes, flying missions for U.N. weapons inspectors, forcing them to abort their mission and return to base.
- March 12 - Serbian Prime Minister Zoran Đinđić assassinated in Belgrade
- March 12 - WHO issues a global alert on SARS.
- March 12 - Iraq disarmament crisis: British prime minister Tony Blair proposes an amendment to the possible 18th U.N. resolution, which would call for Iraq to meet certain benchmarks to prove that it was disarming. The amendment is immediately rejected by France, who promises to veto any new resolution.
- March 13 - Human evolution: The journal Nature reports that 350,000-year-old upright-walking human footprints had been found in Italy
- March 15 - Hu Jintao becomes president of the People's Republic of China, replacing Jiang Zemin.
- March 16 - Iraq disarmament crisis: The leaders of the United States, Britain, Portugal, and Spain meet at a summit in the Azores Islands. U.S. President Bush calls Monday, March 17th, the "moment of Truth", meaning that the "coalition of the willing" would make its final effort to extract a resolution from the U.N. Security Council that would give Iraq an ultimatum to disarm immediately or to be disarmed by force.
- March 17 - Iraq disarmament crisis: U.S. President George W. Bush gives an ultimatum: Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein and his sons must either leave Iraq, or face military action at a time of the U.S.'s choosing
- March 19 - First American bombs dropped on Baghdad, Iraq. President Saddam Hussein and his sons do not comply with President Bush's 48 hour mandate demanding their exit from Iraq.
- March 20 - 2003 Iraq war: Land troops from United States, United Kingdom, Australia and Poland invade Iraq.
- March 22 - The United States and the United Kingdom begin their shock and awe campaign with a massive air strike on military targets in Baghdad.
- March 23 - Cricket World Cup ends as Australia wins over India in Centurion, South Africa.
- March 29 - WHO doctor Carlo Urbani, who first identified SARS, dies of the disease.
- March 30 - The Undertaker defeated the Big Show and A-Train in a handicap match, boosting his Wrestlemania record to 11-0.

April

April.]]
- April 3 - Passenger bus hits remote-controlled land mine in the Chechen capital, killing at least 8.
- April 9 - U.S. forces seize control of Baghdad, apparently ending the regime of Saddam Hussein.
- April 14 - Human Genome Project successfully completed with 99% of the human genome sequenced to 99.99% accuracy.
- April 17 - The Stevens Report concludes that members of the RUC and British Army cooperated with the UDA in the killings of Catholics in Northern Ireland
- April 21 - Retired U.S. Army General Jay Garner becomes Interim Civil Administrator of Iraq.
- April 30 - The last American owned vehicle frame manufacturer, [http://web.archive.org/web/20010623093543/www.immsp.com/index.htm Midland Steel Products] goes [http://www.newsnet5.com/news/2166844/detail.html out of business] after almost 110 years in business, laying off almost 250 people.

May

- May 1 - George W. Bush landed on the aircraft carrier USS Abraham Lincoln, in a Lockheed S-3 Viking, where he gave a speech announcing end of major combat in the Iraq war.
- May 2 - Monkeyman superhero hoax begins in Tunbridge Wells, Kent, UK
- May 3 - Old Man of the Mountain, rock formation in New Hampshire, crumbles after heavy rain
- May 4-10 - A major severe weather outbreak spawned more tornadoes than any week in U.S. history. 393 tornadoes were reported in 19 states.
- May 11 - Benvenuto Cellini's Saliera is stolen from the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna.
- May 12 - Suicide truck-bomb attack kills at least 60 at a government compound in northern Chechnya.
- May 12 - In Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, 26 people are killed in the Riyadh Compound Bombings.
- May 14 - Female suicide bomber blows up explosives strapped to her waist in crowd of thousands of Muslim pilgrims, killing at least 18 people in Chechnya.
- May 16 - In Casablanca, Morocco, 33 civilians are killed and more than 100 people are injured in the Casablanca terrorist attacks.
- May 19 - Pen Hadow becomes the first man to walk alone, without any outside help, from Canada to the North Pole
- May 23 - The birth of Dewey, the first cloned deer by scientists at Texas A&M University
- May 26 - A draft of the proposed European constitution is unveiled.
- May 28 - The birth of Prometea, the first cloned horse by Italian scientists.
- May 31 - Eric Rudolph, the suspected person to have carried out the Centennial Olympic Park bombing is captured in North Carolina behind a Save-A-Lot store.

June

- June 1 - The People's Republic of China begins filling the reservoir behind the massive Three Gorges Dam, raising the water level near the dam over 100 metres.
- June 4 - Martha Stewart and her broker are indicted for using privileged investment information and then obstructing a federal investigation. Stewart also resigned as chairperson and chief executive officer of Martha Stewart Living.
- June 5 - Female suicide bomber detonates bomb near a bus carrying soldiers and civilians to a military airfield in Mozdok, a major staging point for Russian troops in Chechnya, killing at least 16 people.
- June 15 - 2003 NBA Finals end. The San Antonio Spurs defeat the New Jersey Nets, 4 games to 2.
- June 22 - The largest hailstone ever recorded falls in Aurora, Nebraska, USA.
- June 23 - U.S. Supreme Court upholds affirmative action in university admissions in Grutter v. Bollinger
- June 26 - U.S. Supreme Court rules sodomy laws unconstitutional in Lawrence v. Texas

July

- July 1 - 500,000 Hong Kong people march to protest Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23, which redefined treason controversially.
- July 2 - International Olympic Committee session in Prague. Vancouver ,Canada is declared the Host City for the XXI Olympic Winter Games in 2010.
- July 5 - SARS is declared to be contained by WHO.
- July 5 - Double suicide bombing at a Moscow rock concert kills the female attackers and 15 other people.
- July 6 - Residents of Corsica reject a referendum for increased autonomy for the region from France by a very narrow margin.
- July 7 - Canon Jeffrey John, first would-be gay bishop in the Church of England, withdraws his acceptance of the post of The Bishop of Reading after discussions with the church leaders
- July 10 - Russian security agent dies in Moscow while trying to defuse a bomb a woman had tried to carry into a cafe on central Moscow's main street.
- July 14 - U.S. columnist Robert Novak publishes the name of Valerie Plame, blowing her cover as a CIA operative. CIA leak scandal begins.
- July 18 - Convention on the Future of Europe finishes its work and proposes the first European constitution
- July 18 - The body of Dr. David Kelly, a scientist at the Ministry of Defence, is found a few miles from his home, leading to the Hutton inquiry
- July 23 - Operation Warrior Sweep is the first major military deployment of the Afghan National Army
- July 24 - The Regional Assistance Mission to the Solomon Islands, Operation Helpem Fren, led by Australia, begins in the Solomon Islands
- July 30 - The last old-style Volkswagen Beetle rolls off its production line in Puebla, Puebla, Mexico.

August

- August 1 - Suicide bomber rams truck filled with explosives into a military hospital near Chechnya, killing 50 people, including Russian troops wounded in Chechnya.
- August 2 - The United Nations authorizes an international peacekeeping force for Liberia.
- August 10 - The highest temperature ever recorded in the UK - 38.1°C (100.6°F) at Gravesend in Kent and Kew Botanic Gardens, London. It is the first time the UK has recorded a temperature over 100 degrees Fahrenheit.
- August 11 - NATO takes over command of the peacekeeping force in Afghanistan, marking its first major operation outside Europe in its 54-year-history.
- August 11 - Jemaah Islamiah leader Riduan Isamuddin, better known as Hambali, is arrested in Bangkok, Thailand.
- August 14 - Widespread power outage affects northeast United States and Canada.
- August 14 - 6.4 Richter scale earthquake near the Greek Ionian island of Lefkada - 24 injured
- August 22 - 21 killed at the Brazilian rocket complex in Alcântara due to a premature ignition of a solid rocket booster.
- August 25 - 52 killed in two bomb blasts in Mumbai, India.
- August 27 - Perigee of Mars

September

- September 5 - Roller coaster accident at Disneyland injures 10 and kills one.
- September 10 - Swedish foreign minister Anna Lindh is stabbed in a Stockholm department store and dies the next day.
- September 14 - Sweden rejects adopting the Euro in a referendum. (Results.)
- September 14 - Estonia approves joining the European Union in a referendum.
- September 15 - ELN kidnaps 8 foreign tourists in the Ciudad Perdida - they demand a human rights investigation and release last of the hostages three months later
- September 16 - Two suicide bombers drive a truck laden with explosives into a government security services building near Chechnya, killing three people and injuring 25.
- September 27 - Smart 1 is launched.
- September 27 - The Uniterran Church was founded in Victor, NY
- September 28 - a power failure affected all of Italy except Sardinia, cutting service to more than 56 million people.
- September 29 - Hurricane Juan makes landfall at Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada as a category 2 storm. Two were killed directly and 5 indirectly.

October

October
- October 7 - 2003 California recall: Voters recall Governor Gray Davis from office and elect Arnold Schwarzenegger to succeed him.
- October 10 - Facing an investigation surrounding allegations of illegal drug use, American Right Wing radio host Rush Limbaugh publically admits that he is addicted to prescription pain killers and will seek treatment.
- October 14 - The Florida Marlins defeat the Chicago Cubs in Game 6 of Major League Baseball's National League Championship Series; the game is remembered for Cubs fan Steve Bartman interfering with a foul ball which could have helped Chicago win the game and the series.
- October 15 - China launches Shenzhou 5, their first manned space mission.
- October 16 - The Boston Red Sox lose to their hated rivals, the New York Yankees in Game 7 of Major League Baseball's American League Championship Series, blowing a three-run, eighth-inning lead.
- October 23 - Luis A. Ferre, the third Democratically Elected Governor of Puerto Rico, dies at age 99.
- October 24 - Concorde makes its last commercial flight, bringing the era of airliner supersonic travel to a close, at least for the time being.
- October 25 - The Florida Marlins defeat the New York Yankees 4 games to 2 to win the 2003 World Series, behind a complete-game shutout by ace pitcher, Josh Beckett.
- October 25 - Cedar Fire begins in San Diego County burning 280,000 acres (1,100 km²), 2,232 homes and killing 14
- October 31 - Mahathir Mohamad resigns as Prime Minister of Malaysia after 22 years in power.

November

- November 5 - Gary Ridgway, The "Green River Killer", confesses murders of 48 women
- November 9 - Lunar eclipse (the Americas, Europe, Africa, Central Asia)
- November 12 - Occupation of Iraq: In Nasiriya, Iraq, at least 23 people, among them the first Italian casualties of the 2003 Iraq war are killed in a suicide bomb attack on an Italian police base.
- November 15 - Two car bombs explode simultaneously in Istanbul, Turkey targeting two synagogues, killing at least 25 people and wounding more than 300; Al-Qaida claims responsibility.
- November 18 - US President George W. Bush makes a state visit to London in the midst of massive protests.
- November 18 - Goodridge v. Department of Public Health rules anti-same-sex marriage laws unconstitutional in Massachusetts
- November 20 - Several bombs explode in Istanbul, Turkey destroying the Turkish head office of HSBC Holdings and the British consulate.
- November 20 - Michael Jackson is arrested by police on charges of child molestation, a charge that can carry an 8 year jail term.
- November 22 - England wins the Rugby Union World Cup defeating Australia 20-17 after extra time.
- November 23 - Georgian Rose Revolution ends with overwhelming victory - president Eduard Shevardnadze resigns following weeks of mass protests over fraudulent elections.
- November 23 - Total solar eclipse (Antarctica)
- November 24 - The High Court in Glasgow imposes a minimum sentence of 27 years for Al Ali Mohmed Al Megrahi, the Libyan convicted of bombing Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland.

December

December
- December 1 - The use of hand-held mobile phones while driving is made illegal in the United Kingdom.
- December 1 - Boeing chairman and CEO Phil Condit resigns unexpectedly. He is replaced by Lewis Platt as non-executive chairman and Harry Stonecipher as president and CEO.
- December 5 - Suicide bombing on commuter train in southern Russia kills 44 people. President Vladimir Putin condemns attack as bid to destabilize the country two days before parliamentary elections.
- December 7 - Parliamentary election in Russia.
- December 9 - Female suicide bomber blows herself up outside Moscow's National Hotel, across from the Kremlin and Red Square, killing five bystanders.
- December 12 - Paul Martin becomes the 21st Prime Minister of Canada
- December 12 - Olympic Airlines, Greece's new flag carrier is launched.
- December 13 - Saddam Hussein, former President of Iraq, is captured in Tikrit by the U.S. 4th Infantry Division.
- December 16 - The United Kingdom announces plans to build a new runway at Stansted Airport in Essex and a short-haul runway at Heathrow Airport sparking anger from environmental groups.
- December 17 - The film The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King released, effectively completing the Lord of the Rings Trilogy directed by Peter Jackson.
- December 18 - The Soham Murder Trial ends at the Old Bailey in London with Ian Huntley found guilty of two counts of murder. His girlfriend, Maxine Carr is found guilty of perverting the course of justice.
- December 20 - Libya admits that it was building a nuclear bomb.
- December 22 - An earthquake shakes up California, killing two people.
- December 22 - Parmalat is first accused of falsifying accounts to the tune of USD $5 billion, later admitted by founder Calisto Tanzi; observers call it "Europe's Enron".
- December 24 - A BSE outbreak in Washington State is announced. Several countries including Brazil, Australia and Taiwan place a ban on the import of beef from the United States of America.
- December 24 - At the request of the US Embassy in Paris, the French Government orders Air France to cancel several flights between France and the US in response to terrorist concerns.
- December 24 - The Spanish police thwarts an attempt by ETA to detonate 50 kg of explosives at 3:55 PM on Christmas Eve inside Madrid's busy Chamartín Station.
- December 25 - Queen Elizabeth II broadcasts a Christmas message to the British Commonwealth paying tribute to British troops in Iraq. Pope John Paul II's Christmas message calls for peace in the Middle East.
- December 25 - Beagle 2 is scheduled to land on Mars, but nothing is heard from the lander.
- December 25 - The President Pervez Musharraf of Pakistan, escapes the second assassination attempt in two weeks.
- December 26 - A massive earthquake devastates southeastern Iran. Over 40,000 people are reported to have been killed in the city of Bam.
- December 31 - The world's largest Hogmanay party in the Scottish capital Edinburgh is cancelled twenty minutes before midnight due to bad weather.

Births

- April 29 - Maud Angelica Behn, daughter of Ari Behn and Princess Märtha Louise of Norway
- August 24 - Alexandre Coste, son of Albert II, Prince of Monaco
- November 8 - Lady Louise Windsor, daughter of Earl and Countess of Wessex
- December 7 - Princess Catharina-Amalia of the Netherlands, daughter of Prince Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands

Deaths

For more deaths, see: Deaths in 2003

January

- January 3 - Sid Gillman, American football coach (b. 1911)
- January 4 - Conrad Hall, Tahitian-born cinematographer (b. 1926)
- January 4 - Yfrah Neaman, Lebanese-born violinist (b. 1923)
- January 8 - Ron Goodwin, English composer and conductor (b. 1925)
- January 11 - Maurice Pialat, French actor and director (b. 1925)
- January 11 - Richard Simmons, American actor (b. 1913)
- January 12 - Leopoldo Galtieri, Argentine dictator (b. 1926)
- January 12 - Maurice Gibb, Australian musician (Bee Gees) (b. 1949)
- January 15 - Doris Fisher, American singer and songwriter (b. 1915)
- January 17 - Richard Crenna, American actor (b. 1926)
- January 20 - Al Hirschfeld, American cartoonist (b. 1903)
- January 23 - Nell Carter, American singer and actress (b. 1948)
- January 24 - Gianni Agnelli, Italian auto executive (b. 1921)
- January 26 - Valeriy Brumel, Russian athlete (b. 1942)
- January 26 - Hugh Trevor-Roper, Baron Dacre of Glanton, English historian (b. 1917)
- January 29 - Frank Moss, U.S. Senator from Utah (b. 1911)

February

- February 1 - Crew of the Space Shuttle Columbia
- Michael P. Anderson (b. 1959)
- David M. Brown (b. 1956)
- Kalpana Chawla (b. 1961)
- Laurel Clark (b. 1961)
- Rick Husband (b. 1957)
- William McCool (b. 1961)
- Ilan Ramon (b. 1954)
- February 2 - Lou Harrison, American composer (b. 1917)
- February 10 - Edgar de Evia, American photographer (b. 1910)
- February 10 - Ron Ziegler, Richard Nixon's White House Press Secretary (b. 1939)
- February 19 - Johnny PayCheck, American singer (b. 1938)
- February 20 - Maurice Blanchot, French philosopher and writer (b. 1907)
- February 20 - Orville Freeman, American politician (b. 1918)
- February 27 - Fred Rogers, American television host (b. 1928)
- February 28 - Fidel Sánchez Hernández, President of El Salvador (heart attack) (b. 1917)

March

- March 2 - Hank Ballard, American musician (b. 1927)
- March 9 - Bernard Dowiyogo, President of Nauru (diabetes) (b. 1946)
- March 12 - Zoran Đinđić, Prime Minister of Serbia (assassinated) (b. 1952)
- March 12 - Lynne Thigpen, American actress (b.1948)
- March 26 - Daniel Patrick Moynihan, U.S. Senator from New York (b. 1926)
- March 29 - Carlo Urbani, Italian physician (SARS) (b. 1956)

April

- April 1 - Leslie Cheung, Hong Kong singer and actor (b.1961)
- April 7 - Cecile de Brunhoff, French storyteller (b. 1903)
- April 11 - Cecil Howard Green, British-born geophysicist and businessman (b. 1900)
- April 17 - Robert Atkins, American nutritionist (b. 1930)
- April 17 - Paul Getty, American-born philanthropist (b. 1932)
- April 17 - Earl King, American musician (b. 1934)
- April 20 - Ruth Hale, American playwright and actress (b. 1908)
- April 20 - Bernard Katz, German-born biophysicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1911)
- April 21 - Nina Simone, American singer (b. 1933)
- April 23 - Fernand Fonssagrives, French photographer (b. 1910)
- April 26 - Peter Stone, American writer (b. 1930)
- April 30 - Wim van Est, Dutch cyclist (b. 1923)

May

- May 3 - Suzy Parker, American actress (b. 1932)
- May 9 - Russell B. Long, U.S. Senator from Louisiana (b. 1933)
- May 12 - Sadruddhin Aga Khan, French UN High Commissioner for Refugees (b. 1933)
- May 14 - Wendy Hiller, English actress (b. 1912)
- May 14 - Robert Stack, American actor (b. 1919)
- May 15 - June Carter Cash, American singer (b. 1929)
- May 15 - Rik Van Steenbergen, Belgian cyclist (b. 1924)
- May 26 - Kathleen Winsor, American writer (b. 1919)
- May 27 - Luciano Berio, Italian composer (b. 1925)
- May 28 - Ilya Prigogine, Russian-born physicist and chemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (b. 1917)
- May 28 - Martha Scott, American actress (b. 1912)

June

- June 2 - Burke Marshall, American lawyer and politician (b. 1922)
- June 10 - Donald Regan, U.S. Treasury Secretary (b. 1918)
- June 10 - Bernard Williams, English philosopher (b. 1929)
- June 11 - David Brinkley, American television reporter (b. 1920)
- June 12 - Gregory Peck, American actor (b. 1916)
- June 15 - Hume Cronyn, Canadian act

Inter-American Commission on Human Rights

The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (the IACHR or, in the three other official languages – Spanish, French, and Portuguese – CIDH) is one of the two bodies that comprise the inter-American system for the promotion and protection of human rights. The IACHR is an autonomous organ of the Organization of American States (OAS). Its human rights duties stem from three documents: the OAS Charter, the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man, and the American Convention on Human Rights. It is a permanent body, with headquarters in Washington, D.C., United States, and it meets in regular and special sessions several times a year. The other body in the system is the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, headquartered in San José, Costa Rica.

History of the inter-American human rights system

The inter-American system for the protection of human rights emerged with the adoption of the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man in April 1948 – the first international human rights instrument of a general nature, predating the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by more than six months. The IACHR was created in 1959. It held its first meeting in 1960, and it conducted its first on-site visit to inspect the human rights situation in an OAS member state (the Dominican Republic) in 1961. A major step in the development of the system was taken in 1965, when the Commission was expressly authorized to examine specific cases of human rights violations. Since that date the IACHR has received thousands of petitions and has processed in excess of 12,000 individual cases. In 1969, the guiding principles behind the American Declaration were taken, reshaped, and restated in the American Convention on Human Rights. The Convention defines the human rights that the states parties are required to respect and guarantee, and it also ordered the establishment of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights. It is currently binding on 24 of the OAS's 35 member states.

Functions of the Inter-American Commission

The main task of the IACHR is to promote the observance and defense of human rights in the Americas. In pursuit of this mandate it:
- Receives, analyzes, and investigates individual petitions alleging violations of specific human rights protected by the American Convention on Human Rights.
- Monitors the general human rights situation in the OAS's member states and, when necessary, prepares and publishes country-specific human rights reports.
- Conducts on-site visits to examine members' general human rights situation or to investigate specific cases.
- Encourages public awareness about human rights and related issues throughout the hemisphere.
- Holds conferences, seminars, and meetings with governments, NGOs, academic institutions, etc. to inform and raise awareness about issues relating to the inter-American human rights system.
- Issues member states with recommendations that, if adopted, would further the cause of human rights protection.
- Requests that states adopt precautionary measures to prevent serious and irreparable harm to human rights in urgent cases.
- Refers cases to the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, and litigates those same cases before the Court.
- Asks the Inter-American Court to provide advisory opinions on matters relating to the interpretation of the Convention or other related instruments. In 1997, the IACHR created the office of the OAS Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression to raise awareness of the importance of respecting freedom of expression and information in the hemisphere, to monitor violations and to make recommendations to OAS member States regarding strengthening the right to free expression. The unit is a permanent office, with functional autonomy and its own budget. The Rapporteur's responsibilities include conducting fact-finding missions to countries, producing annual reports on freedom of expression and participating in numerous conferences, seminars and events.

How the Commission processes cases

The Commission processes cases pursuant to its [http://www.iachr.org/Basicos/basic16.htm Rules of Procedure].

Composition of the Inter-American Commission

The IACHR's ranking officers are its seven commissioners. The commissioners are elected by the OAS General Assembly, for four-year terms, with the possibility of reelection on one occasion, for a maximum period in office of eight years. They serve in a personal capacity and are not considered to represent their countries of origin but rather "all the member countries of the Organization" (Art. 43 of the Convention). The Convention (Art. 42) says that they must "be persons of high moral character and recognized competence in the field of human rights". No two nationals of the same member state may be commissioners simultaneously (Art. 37), and commissioners are required to refrain from participating in the discussion of cases involving their home countries. OAS General Assembly

Current Commissioners (2005)

- Clare Kamau Roberts (Antigua & Barbuda) 2002–2008 (President)
- Susana Villarán (Peru) 2002–2005 (First Vice-President)
- Paulo Sergio Pinheiro (Brazil) 2004–2007 (Second Vice-President)
- José Zalaquett (Chile) 2002–2005
- Evelio Fernández (Paraguay) 2004–2007
- Freddy Gutiérrez (Venezuela) 2004–2007
- Florentín Meléndez (El Salvador) 2004–2007 In January 2006, Commissioners Villarán and Zalaquett are to be replaced by Víctor E. Abramovich Cosarín of Argentina and Paolo Carozza of the USA, who were elected at the OAS General Assembly in June 2005. On the same occasion, Commissioner Roberts was elected to serve a second three-year term.

Past Commissioners

June 2005
- Rómulo Gallegos (Venezuela, 1960–1963)
- Reynaldo Galindo Pohl (El Salvador, 1960–1964)
- Gonzalo Escudero (Ecuador, 1960–1968)
- Ángela Acuña de Chacón (Costa Rica, 1960–1972)
- Durwood V. Sandifer (United States, 1960–1972)
- Manuel Bianchi Gundián (Chile, 1960–1976)
- Gabino Fraga (Mexico, 1960–1979)
- Daniel Hugo Martins (Uruguay, 1964–1968)
- Carlos A. Dunshee de Abranches (Brazil, 1964–1983)
- Mario Alzamora Valdez (Peru, 1968–1972)
- Justino Jiménez de Arechega (Uruguay, 1968–1972)
- Genaro R. Carrió (Argentina, 1972–1976)
- Robert F. Woodward (United States, 1972–1976)
- Andrés Aguilar (Venezuela, 1972–1985)
- Carlos García Bauer (Guatemala, 1976–1979)
- Fernando Volio Jiménez (Costa Rica, 1976–1979)
- Tom J. Farer (United States, 1976–1983)
- José Joaquín Gori (Colombia, 1976–1978)
- Marco Gerardo Monroy Cabra (Colombia, 1978–1987)
- Franciso Bertrand Galindo (El Salvador 1980–1987)
- César Sepúlveda (Mexico, 1980–1985)
- Luis Demetrio Tinoco Castro (Costa Rica, 1980–1985)
- R. Bruce McColm (United States, 1984–1988)
- Luis Adolfo Siles Salinas (Bolivia, 1984–1987)
- Gilda Maciel Correa Russomano (Brazil, 1984–1991)
- Elsa Kelly (Argentina, 1986–1989)
- Marco Tulio Bruni-Celli (Venezuela, 1986–1993)
- Oliver Hamlet Jackman (Barbados, 1986–1993)
- John Reese Stevenson (United States, 1988–1991)
- Leo Valladares Lanza (Honduras, 1988–1995)
- Patrick Lipton Robinson (Jamaica, 1988–1995)
- Óscar Luján Fappiano (Argentina, 1990–1997)
- Michael Reisman (United States, 1992–1995)
- John S. Donaldson (Trinidad and Tobago, 1994–1997)
- Henry Forde (Barbados, 1998–1999)
- Álvaro Tirado Mejía (Colombia, 1992–1999)
- Carlos Ayala Corao (Venezuela, 1996–1999)
- Jean-Joseph Exumé (Haiti, 1996–1999)
- Claudio Grossman (Chile 1994–2001)
- Hélio Bicudo (Brazil, 1998–2001)
- Peter Laurie (Barbados, 1999–2001)
- Diego García Sayán (Peru, 2002–2002)
- Robert K. Goldman (United States, 1996–2003)
- Marta Altolaguirre Larraondo (Guatemala, 2000–2003)
- Juan Méndez (Argentina, 2000–2003)
- Julio Prado Vallejo (Ecuador, 2000–2003)

Human rights violations investigated by the Inter-American Commission

- Barrios Altos massacre (Peru)
- Lori Berenson (Peru)
- La Cantuta massacre (Peru)
- El Caracazo (Venezuela)
- Deaths in Ciudad Juárez (Mexico)
- Antoine Izméry (Haiti)
- Plan de Sánchez massacre (Guatemala)

External links

- [http://www.cidh.org/DefaultE.htm IACHR website]
- [http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/cases/commissn.htm IACHR case law]
- [http://www.cidh.org/Relatoria/index.asp?lID=1 OAS Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression] Category:Human rights bodies Category:Organization of American States

Human rights

Human rights refers to the concept of human beings as having universal rights, or status, regardless of legal jurisdiction, and likewise other localizing factors, such as ethnicity and nationality. The existence, validity and the content of human rights continue to be the subject to debate in philosophy and political science. However human rights are defined in international law & covenants, and further, in the domestic laws of many states. There is, however, a great deal of variance between how human rights norms are defined in these multiple contexts and how they are upheld in different local jurisdictions. Within particular states, "human rights" refer to safeguards for the individual against arbitrary use of power by the government regarding 1) the well being of individuals, 2) the freedom and autonomy of individuals, and 3) the representation of the human interest in government. These rights commonly include the right to life, the right to an adequate standard of living, freedom from torture and other mistreatment, freedom of religion and of expression, freedom of movement, the right to self-determination, the right to education, and the right to participation in cultural and political life. These norms are based on the legal and political traditions of United Nations member states and are incorporated into international human rights instruments (see below). With the exception of so called non-derogable human rights (the four most important are the right to life, the right to be free from slavery, the right to be free from torture and the right to be free from retroactive application of penal laws), most human rights can be limited or even pushed aside during times of war.[http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/enable/comp210.htm] Conduct in war is governed by International Humanitarian Law.

Human Rights in international law

The 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights resolution was adopted virtually unanimously by the United Nations General Assembly. While not legally binding, it urged member nations to promote a number of human, civil, economic and social rights, asserting these rights are part of the "foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world". The declaration limits the behavior of the state, which now has duties to the citizen (rights-duty duality). Efforts to create a legally binding form of the charter led to disagreements between various states over which rights were acceptable. Thus, two different covenents, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (opened for signature 1966, entered into force March 23, 1976) [http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/a_ccpr.htm] and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (opened for signature 1966, entered into force January 3, 1976) [http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/a_cescr.htm] were created which bind those states that ratify them to protect the rights listed in the respective covenant. Together these three documents constitute the International Bill of Human Rights. There have also been a number of other conventions regarding particular rights, including the
- Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (entry into force: 1951) [http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/p_genoci.htm]
- Convention against Torture (entry into force: 1984) [http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/h_cat39.htm]
- Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (entry into force: 1969) [http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/d_icerd.htm]
- Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (entry into force: 1981) [http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/frame.htm]
- Convention on the Rights of the Child (entry into force: 1989) [http://www.unicef.org/crc/crc.htm]
- Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (entry into force: 2002) A modern interpretation of the original Declaration of Human Rights was made in the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action[http://www.ohchr.org/english/law/vienna.htm], adopted by the World Conference on Human Rights in 1993. The degree of unanimity over these conventions, in terms of how many and which countries have ratified them vary, as does the degree to which they are respected by various states. The UN has set up a number of bodies to monitor and study human rights, under the leadership of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (HCHR). There are also many regional agreements and organisations governing human rights including the European Court of Human Rights, the only international court with jurisdiction to deal with cases brought by individuals (not states). the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights, Inter-American Commission on Human Rights and the Inter-American Court of Human Rights.

Types of human rights

Human rights are typically divided into two categories: negative human rights (rights to be free from) and positive human rights (rights to), although other categorizations exist. Negative human rights, which follow mainly from the Anglo-American legal tradition, denote actions that a government should not take. These are codified in the United States Bill of Rights, the English Bill of Rights and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and include freedoms of speech, religion and assembly. Positive human rights follow mainly from the Rousseauian Continental European legal tradition, denote rights that the state is obliged to protect and provide. Examples of such rights include: the rights to education, to a livelihood, to legal equality, and to alter forms of consciousness. Positive rights have been codified in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in many 20th-century constitutions. A categorization offered by Karel Vasak is the three generations of human rights: first-generation civil and political rights (right to life and political participation), second-generation economic, social and cultural rights (right to subsistence) and third-generation solidarity rights (right to peace, right to clean environment). Out of these generations, the third generation is the most debated and lacks both legal and political recognition. Some theorists discredit these divisions by claiming that rights are interconnected. Arguably, for example, basic education is necessary for the right to political participation.

History of human rights

The best-known histories of the human rights movement tend to begin with the ancient religions and societies and show the evolution of concepts and institutions of human rights across civilizations. The roots of the notion of Human Rights can be drawn as far back as the Ancients (the role of the individual in the state) but the idea of civil and political rights stems from liberal freedoms advocated by John Stuart Mill in On Liberty. The concepts of economic, social and cultural Rights can be traced back to Hegel's Elements of the Philosophy of Right. The origin of modern positive rights in international law may be traced to the creation of the International Labour Organization in 1919 as a Western response to the socialist ideology of the Russian Revolution of 1917.

Philosophical basis of human rights

Numerous theoretical approaches have been advanced to explain how human rights become part of social expectations. The biological theory considers the comparative reproductive advantage of human social behavior based on empathy and altruism in the context of natural selection. Other theories hold that human rights codify moral behavior, which is a human, social product developed by a process of biological and social evolution (associated with Hume) or as a sociological pattern of rule setting (as in the sociological theory of law and the work of Weber). This approach includes the notion that individuals in a society accept rules from legitimate authority in exchange for security and economic advantage (as in Rawls). Natural law theories base human rights on the “natural” moral order based on religious precepts, the assumed common understandings of justice, or the belief that moral behavior is a set of objectively valid prescriptions. In legend, literature, religion and political thought, justice (and eventually the concept of human rights) became socially constructed over time into complex webs of social interaction striving toward a social order in which human beings are treated fairly. Religious societies tend to try to justify human rights through religious arguments. For example, liberal movements within Islam have tried to use the story of Adam in the Qur'an to support human rights in a Muslim context. Other theories are based on human agency, positing such constructs for agreement to rules on the utilitarian principles mediated by public reasoning. The social evolution model is based on human needs and struggle that incorporates an analysis of the norm-creating process. Values become norms through the constitutive process of authoritative decision-making. Such norms may take the form of law through a particular form of authoritative decision making of institutions associated with a legal system. It is the process of public reasoning through human rights norm-creating that progressively weeds out the culturally bound behaviors that are inconsistent with contemporary human rights. In this sense, culturally particular norms adapt to evolving human rights standards as defined in national constitutions and international human rights instruments. Ultimately, the term "human rights" is often itself an appeal to a transcendent principle, without basing it on existing legal concepts. The term "humanism" refers to the developing doctrine of such universally applicable values. Some authors argue that nationalism and realism weaken human rights, while individualism and cosmopolitanism strengthen them. This is argued by Klitou in his book "The Friends and Foes of Human Rights." Klitou also outlines the need for a "human identity" in order to empower human In the Western political tradition, human rights are held to be "inalienable" and to belong to all humans. They are necessary for freedom and the maintenance of a "reasonable" quality of life. If a right is inalienable, that means it cannot be bestowed, granted, bartered, or sold away (e.g., one cannot sell oneself into slavery). Rights may also be non-derogable (not limited in times of national emergency); these often include the right to life, the right to be prosecuted only according to the laws that are in existence at the time of the offense, the right to be free from slavery, and the right to be free from torture.

Human rights controversies

There are a number of controversies regarding human rights including: #Are human rights political, moral or legal entities (or all three at the same time)? #Is there or should there be a hierarchy of human rights? #Do human rights impede on state sovereignty? What if the state itself has ratified international conventions? #Should human rights be used as a context for economic or military intervention? (Often leads to a worsening of the human rights situation in the target country) #Questions of cultural relativism—e.g. "Political participation is not a part of African culture. Who are you to say that we should have political participation?" These arguments can also be made on religious basis: e.g., "In our religion marriages have always been arranged; why should we not continue this practice?" Some arguments claim that human rights policies are a form of cultural imperialism in which powerful countries dictate which rights they consider most important to less powerful countries. The increasing number of third-world states that are party to international human rights treaties has made these arguments weaker, but they have not disappeared altogether. #Who should hold the moral duty to uphold rights? For civil and political rights, many would answer 'the state'. But in practice, it is frequently one's fellow citizens and civil society who need to shoulder this responsibility. It is not quite so clear who should be responsible for promoting economic, social and cultural rights (do we have a global duty?). This debate mirrors debates between communitarianism and cosmopolitanism. #Which rights should be defined as fundamental human rights? Should all human rights be considered equal? #Are countries guilty of human rights violations when their governments substantially support foreign governments that do not adhere to the established principles of human rights (within their own countries or in other countries)?

External links

Information

- [http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html United Nations- Universal Declaration of Human Rights]
- [http://www.un.org/rights/ United Nations- Human Rights]
- [http://www.betterworldlinks.org/menschenrechte.htm Better World Links] Biggest Link List on Human Rights
- [http://www.tamilink.org.uk/ A Tamil human rights news portal]
- [http://www.rightsphilosophyforum.org/ Rights Philosophy Forum]
- [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/hr/c1470.htm Country reports on human rights] from the U.S. Department of State
- [http://www.ngochr.org/custom/index.php ngoCHR.org] – Volunteer reporting on the United Nations Commission on Human Rights
- [http://www.le.ac.uk/library/hmb11/law/humanr.html University of Leicester, UK, list of sources and links.]
- [http://www.tamilnation.org/humanrights.htm Introduction to Human Rights & Humanitarian Law]
- [http://www.detroitfocus.org/Issues/0410/CryForCompassion/index.html Photojournalist's approach to human rights in Sudan]
- [http://www.liberalislam.net/adam.html A Muslim approach to human rights] from LiberalIslam.net
- [http://www.missionandjustice.org Mission and Justice] – Human Rights, Justice and Peace news from the Asia Pacific region.
- [http://www.tamilnation.org/humanrights/tamil.htm Sri Lanka – Human Rights of the Tamil People]
- [http://www.childrensrights.ie/convention.php Children's Rights Alliance]
- [http://www.yihrc.org Human rights development in Asia]
- [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rights-human/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
- [http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts University of Minnesota Human Rights Library]
- [http://www.ifex.org International Freedom of Expression Exchange] - Monitoring censorship around the world
- [http://www.newsxs.com/en/preset/324 Human Rights News Headlines by NewsXS] - Aggregated news and RSS feed

Human rights organizations

- [http://www.betterworldlinks.org/book20b.htm Better World Links on Human Rights Organizations]
- [http://www.antislavery.org Anti Slavery]
- [http://www.ahrchk.net Asian Human Rights Commission]
- [http://www.justicefortheworld.org Justice For The World]
- [http://www.globalrights.org Global Rights: Partners for Justice]
- [http://www.olympicwatch.org/ Olympic Watch: Human Rights in China and Beijing 2008]
- [http://www.humanrights.gov.au Australian Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission]
- [http://www.fian.org FoodFirst Information and Action Network]
- [http://www.ensaaf.org ENSAAF: Fighting Impunity in India]
- [http://www.punjabjustice.org Committee for Information and Initiative on Punjab]
- Category:International relations Category:Rights zh-min-nan:Jîn-kôan ja:人権 simple:Human rights

Organization of American States

The Organization of American States (OAS; OEA in the other three official languages) is an international organization, headquartered in Washington, D.C., USA. Its members are the 35 independent nations of the Americas.

History

The notion of closer hemispheric union in the American continent was first put forward by the Liberator Simón Bolívar who, at the 1826 Congress of Panama, proposed creating a league of American republics, with a common military, a mutual defense pact, and a supranational parliamentary assembly. This meeting was attended by representatives of Gran Colombia (comprising the modern-day nations of Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, and Venezuela), Peru, the United Provinces of Central America, and Mexico, but the grandly titled Treaty of Union, League, and Perpetual Confederation was ultimately only ratified by Gran Colombia. Bolívar's dream soon foundered irretrievably with civil war in Gran Colombia, the disintegration of Central America, and the emergence of national rather than continental outlooks in the newly independent American republics. The pursuit of regional solidarity and cooperation again came to the forefront in 1889–90, at the First International Conference of American States. Gathered together in Washington, D.C., 18 nations resolved to found the International Union of American Republics, served by a permanent secretariat called the Commercial Bureau of the American Republics (renamed the "International Commercial Bureau" at the Second International Conference in 1901–02). These two bodies, in existence as of 14 April 1890, represent the point of inception to which today's OAS and its General Secretariat trace their origins. At the Fourth International Conference of American States (Buenos Aires, 1910), the name of the organization was changed to the "Union of American Republics" and the Bureau became the "Pan American Union". The experience of World War II convinced hemispheric governments that unilateral action could not ensure the territorial integrity of the American nations in the event of extra-continental aggression. To meet the challenges of global conflict in the postwar world and to contain conflicts within the hemisphere, they adopted a system of collective security, the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (Rio Treaty) signed in 1947 in Rio de Janeiro. The Ninth International Conference of American States was held in Bogotá between March and May 1948. This was the event that saw the birth of the OAS as it stands today, with the signature by 21 American countries of the Charter of the Organization of American States on 30 April 1948 (in effect since December 1951). The meeting also adopted the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man, the world's first general human rights instrument. The transition from the Pan American Union to OAS was smooth. The Director General of the former, Alberto Lleras Camargo, became the Organization's first Secretary General. Significant milestones in the history of the OAS since the signing of the Charter have included the following:
- 1959: Inter-American Commission on Human Rights created.
- 1961: Charter of Punta del Este signed, launching the Alliance for Progress.
- 1969: American Convention on Human Rights signed (in force since 1978).
- 1970: OAS General Assembly established as the Organization's supreme decision-making body.
- 1991: Adoption of Resolution 1080, which requires the Secretary General to convene the Permanent Council within ten days of a coup d'état in any member country.
- 1994: First Summit of the Americas (Miami), which resolved to establish a Free Trade Area of the Americas by 2005.
- 2001: Inter-American Democratic Charter adopted.

Goals and purpose

Inter-American Democratic Charter] In the words of Article 1 of the Charter, the goal of the member nations in creating the OAS was "to achieve an order of peace and justice, to promote their solidarity, to strengthen their collaboration, and to defend their sovereignty, their territorial integrity, and their independence." Article 2 then defines eight essential purposes:
- To strengthen the peace and security of the continent.
- To promote and consolidate representative democracy, with due respect for the principle of nonintervention.
- To prevent possible causes of difficulties and to ensure the pacific settlement of disputes that may arise among the member states.
- To provide for common action on the part of those states in the event of aggression.
- To seek the solution of political, juridical, and economic problems that may arise among them
- To promote, by cooperative action, their economic, social, and cultural development.
- To eradicate extreme poverty, which constitutes an obstacle to the full democratic development of the peoples of the hemisphere.
- To achieve an effective limitation of conventional weapons that will make it possible to devote the largest amount of resources to the economic and social development of the member states. Over the course of the 1990s, with the end of the Cold War, the return to democracy in Latin America, and the thrust toward globalization, the OAS made major efforts to reinvent itself to fit the new context. Its stated priorities now include the following:
- Strengthening democracy: Between 1962 and 2002, the Organization sent multinational observation missions to oversee free and fair elections in the member states on more than 100 occasions. The OAS also works to strengthen national and local government and electoral agencies, to promote democratic practices and values, and to help countries detect and defuse official corruption.
- Working for peace: Special OAS missions have supported peace processes in Nicaragua, Suriname, Haiti, and Guatemala. The Organization has played a leading part in the removal of landmines deployed in the Americas and it has led negotiations to resolve the continent's remaining border disputes (Guatemala/Belize; Peru/Ecuador). Work is also underway on the construction of a common inter-American front to counter the scourge of terrorism.
- Defending human rights: The agencies of the inter-American human rights system provide a venue for the denunciation and resolution of human rights violations in individual cases. They also monitor and report on the general human rights situation in the member states.
- Fostering free trade: The OAS is one of the three agencies currently engaged in drafting a treaty that will establish a hemispheric free trade area from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego.
- Fighting the drugs trade: The Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission was established in 1986 to coordinate efforts and crossborder cooperation in this area.
- Promoting sustainable development: The goal of the OAS's Inter-American Council for Integral Development is to promote economic development and combating poverty. OAS technical cooperation programs address such areas as river basin management, the conservation of biodiversity, planning for global climate change, and natural disaster mitigation.

Membership and adhesions

All 35 independent nations of the Americas are members of the OAS. Upon foundation on 5 May 1948 there were 21 members:1948 The later expansion of the OAS was mostly among the newly independent nations of the Caribbean. Members with later admission dates (sorted by date of admission):
- (acceded in 1967)
- (1967)
- (1969)
- (1975)
- (1977)
- and (1979)
- and (1981)
- (1982)
- (1984)
- (1990)
- and (1991) The Organization's official languages are English, French, Portuguese, and Spanish.

Status of Cuba

The current government of Cuba is excluded from participation in the Organization under a decision adopted by the Eighth Meeting of Consultation in Punta del Este, Uruguay, on 31 January 1962. The vote was passed by 14 in favor, with one against (Cuba) and six abstentions (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, and Mexico). The operative part of the resolution reads as follows:

1. That adherence by any member of the Organization of American States to Marxism-Leninism is incompatible with the inter-American system and the alignment of such a government with the communist bloc breaks the unity and solidarity of the hemisphere.

2. That the present Government of Cuba, which has officially identified itself as a Marxist-Leninist government, is incompatible with the principles and objectives of the inter-American system.

3. That this incompatibility excludes the present Government of Cuba from participation in the inter-American system. [http://www.cidh.oas.org/countryrep/Cuba79eng/intro.htm]

This means that the Cuban nation is still technically a member state, but that the current regime is denied the right of representation and attendance at meetings and of participation in activities. The OAS's position is that although Cuba's participation is suspended, its obligations under the Charter, the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man, etc. still hold: for instance, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights continues to publish reports on Cuba's human rights situation and to hear individual cases involving Cuban nationals. However, this stance is occasionally questioned by other individual member states. Cuba's position was stated in an official note sent to the Organization "merely as a courtesy" by Minister of Foreign Affairs Dr. Raúl Roa on 4 November 1964: "Cuba was arbitrarily excluded... The Organization of American States has no juridical, factual, or moral jurisdiction, nor competence, over a state which it has illegally deprived of its rights."[http://www.cidh.oas.org/countryrep/Cuba83eng/intro.htm] The reincorporation of Cuba as an active member regularly arises as a topic within the inter-American system (e.g., it was intimated by the outgoing ambassador of Mexico in 1998) [http://www.oas.org/OASpage/press2002/en/Press98/020498ce.htm] but most observers do not see it as a serious possibility while the present government remains in power. On 6 May 2005, President Fidel Castro reiterated that the island nation would not "be part of a disgraceful institution that has only humiliated the honor of Latin American nations". [http://www.plenglish.com/article.asp?ID=%7B2355B35C-068E-4DFE-879E-3E8836A38EA4%7D&language=EN]

Organs and agencies

:Secretary General :General Assembly :Permanent Council :Inter-American Commission on Human Rights :Inter-American Court of Human Rights :Inter-American Defense Board

Perspectives on the Organization

From its creation up until, at the least, the mid-1980s, the OAS was a frequent target for critics, particularly those on the left of the political spectrum, who accused it of being a mere arm of U.S. foreign policy – "Washington's colonial office", it was scornfully labeled (this is sometimes attributed to Fidel Castro, but is not verified; see [http://lanic.utexas.edu/la/cb/cuba/castro/1960/19600719]). This interpretation was borne out by the alacrity with which the Organization moved, at Washington's bidding, to expel Cuba in 1962; in contrast, the OAS never took steps to suspend the membership of the various dictatorships that emerged in the 1970s and 1980s and were disrepectful of human rights and democracy – Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Guatemala – but that differed from Cuba in their political orientation. The return to democracy that took place in the 1980s and 1990s saw the emergence of new trends within the OAS. The Organization's new direction has taken it into areas of greater direct relevance to the peoples of the continent: for example, its highly successful demining programs in Central America and the Andean region. Perhaps more importantly, the Organization's other member states (particularly the South Americans) now appear to be reasserting their political independence and assuming positions that are much less subservient to U.S. interests. Evidence that the U.S. no longer holds hegemonic sway over the Organization has been noted, for example, in:
- The democratic election of President Hugo Chavez was verified by an OAS delegation in 2004.
- The refusal of the

Rafael E. Martinez

2003

Events

Births

Deaths

January

February

March

April

May

June

Inter-American Commission on Human Rights

History of the inter-American human rights system

Functions of the Inter-American Commission

How the Commission processes cases

Composition of the Inter-American Commission

Current Commissioners (2005)

Past Commissioners

Human rights violations investigated by the Inter-American Commission

External links

Human rights

Human Rights in international law

Types of human rights

History of human rights

Philosophical basis of human rights

Human rights controversies

See also

Similar topics

General

Human rights organizations

Africa

Americas

Asia

Europe

Oceania

References

External links

Information

Human rights organizations

Organization of American States

History

Goals and purpose

Membership and adhesions

Status of Cuba

Organs and agencies

Perspectives on the Organization