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President Of The Confederation (Switzerland)

President of the Confederation (Switzerland)

The President of the Confederation (Italian: Presidente della Confederazione, French: Président de la Confédération, German: Bundespräsident) is the presiding member of the Swiss Federal Council, Switzerland's seven-member executive. Elected by the Federal Assembly for one year, the President of the Confederation chairs the meetings of the Federal Council and undertakes special representational duties. Primus inter pares, he has no powers above the other Councillors and continues to head his department. Traditionally the duty rotates among the members in order of seniority and the previous year's Vice President becomes President.

Competencies

He is not - as are for example the Presidents in Austria or Germany - the Head of State of the country. The Swiss Federal Constitution knows neither a Head of State nor a Head of Government. All of these functions are administered by the Federal Council. If a tie vote occurs in this council, the President, as Chair of the Federal Council, casts the deciding vote. In addition to the control of their own Department, the President carries out some of the representative duties of a Head of State. At first this was only the case inside Switzerland: The President holds speeches on the New Year and the Swiss National Holiday (1st August). More recently, added foreign visits means that the President travels abroad often as well. However, because the Swiss have no Head of State, the country also carries out no state visits. If the President travels abroad, he does so only as an ordinary Minister of a government Department. Visiting heads of state are received by the seven members of the Federal Council together, rather than the President of the Confederation.

Election

The President is elected by the Federal Assembly from the Federal Council in each case for one year. In the 19th century, the election of the federal president was an award for especially esteemed Federal Council (Bundesrat) members. However, a few influential members of the government were regularly passed over. One such example was St. Galler Wilhelm Matthias Naeff, who belonged to the government for twenty-seven years, but was federal president only once in 1853. Since the twentieth century, the election has usually not been disputed. There is an unwritten rule that the member of the Federal Council who has not been Federal President the longest becomes president. Therefore every Federal Council member gets a turn at least once every seven years. The only question in the elections that provides some tension is the question of how many votes the person who is to be elected president receives. This is seen as a test of their popularity. In the 1970s and 1980s, 200 votes (of 246 possible) was seen as an excellent result. However, in the current era of growing party-political conflicts, 180 votes are already considered a respectable outcome. Until 1920 it was usually customary for the serving federal president to also take over the Foreign Ministry. Therefore every year there was a moving around of posts, as the retiring president moved back to his old department and the new president moved into the foreign ministry. Likewise, it was traditional for the federal president, even as foreign minister, not to leave Switzerland during his year in office. The 2005 President of the Confederation is Samuel Schmid. Moritz Leuenberger was elected vice-president, and he is expected to be elected President of the Confederation in 2006.

External links

- [http://www.bundespraesident.admin.ch/internet/president/en/home.html Presidents of the Swiss Confederation 2005] -- official site. Category:Government of Switzerland als:Bundespräsident

Swiss Federal Council

The Swiss Federal Council (in German, Schweizerische Bundesrat; in French, Conseil fédéral suisse; in Italian, Consiglio federale svizzero; in Romansh, Cussegl federal svizzer) is the seven-member executive council which constitutes the government of Switzerland, as well as assuming functions corresponding to those of the head of state of other nations. Each of the seven Federal Councillors heads a department. Following the elections of 10 December 2003, they are:
- Federal Department of Foreign Affairs (Micheline Calmy-Rey)
- Federal Department of Home Affairs (Pascal Couchepin)
- Federal Department of Justice and Police (Christoph Blocher)
- Federal Department of Defence, Civil Protection and Sports (Samuel Schmid) [Pres.]
- Federal Department of Finance (Hans-Rudolf Merz)
- Federal Department of Economic Affairs (Joseph Deiss)
- Federal Department of Environment, Transport, Energy and Communications (Moritz Leuenberger) [VP] Moritz Leuenberger)]] One of the seven is elected to be president of the Federal Council (President of the Confederation) for a term of one year: he or she has no power above and beyond the other six, but assumes special representative functions (primus inter pares). The president of the confederation is thus not in the position of a head of state, though he or she may act and be recognized as one welcoming visiting heads of state of foreign nations. Official visits abroad are usually carried out by the head of the Federal Department of Foreign Affairs. See also:
- List of members of the Swiss Federal Council (chronological)
- :Category:Members of the Swiss Federal Council (alphabetical list)
- List of Presidents of the Swiss Confederation

External links

- [http://www.admin.ch/ch/e/cf/ Swiss Federal Council] - Official site. Category:Government of Switzerland Switzerland Switzerland

Executive (government)

Under the doctrine of the separation of powers, the executive is the branch of a government charged with implementing, or executing, the law and running the day-to-day affairs of the government or state. The de facto most senior figure in an executive is referred to as the head of government. The executive may be referred to as the administration, in presidential systems, or simply as the government, in parliamentary systems. In some constitutional monarchies, such as the United Kingdom, the monarch, who is the Head of State, is the de jure and theoretical head of the executive, and the Prime Minister, who he or she technically appoints, is the head of the monarch's government (i.e. "Her Majesty's Government"). In practice, however, a symbolic or figurehead Head of State does not actively exercise executive power, though decisions may be formally made in his or her name. Along with the Prime Minister or executive President, the executive branch consists of the cabinet and the executive departments or ministries of the government.

Executives under different systems

Executive authority within a presidential system is exercised by a president who is also head of state. The president will not usually be designated by the legislature, and may instead be elected directly, or in the case of the President of the United States, indirectly, by an electoral college. Under presidential systems the legislature and the executive are formally distinct, and it is usually expressly forbidden for the president and other executive officers to be members of the legislature. In parliamentary systems, the executive branch is generally comprised of a prime minister and a cabinet, who must directly or indirectly secure the support of the legislature. In a semi-presidential system (such as France, for example) executive powers are shared between the president and a prime minister.

Role of the executive

It is usually the role of the executive to:
- Enforce the law. To achieve this the executive administers the prisons and the police force, and prosecutes criminals in the name of the state.
- Conduct the foreign relations of the state.
- Command the armed forces.
- Appoint state officials, including judges and diplomats.
- Administer government departments and public services.
- Issue executive orders (also known as secondary legislation, ordinances, edicts or decrees). Most constitutions require that certain executive powers may only be exercised in conjunction with the legislature. For example, often the consent of the legislature is required to ratify treaties, appoint important officials, or to declare war. In the United Kingdom, however, the executive is exempt from most such limitations under the royal prerogative.

Federal Assembly of Switzerland

The Federal Assembly (in German, Bundesversammlung; in French, Assemblée fédérale; in Italian language, Assemblea federale), is Switzerland's federal parliament. It meets in Bern in the Bundeshaus. Bern The Federal Assembly is responsible for electing the Federal Council, the Federal Chancellor, and federal judges. It also appoints a General in case of crisis or war.

Composition

The Federal Assembly is made up of two chambers:
- the National Council, with 200 seats
- the Council of States, with 46 councillors. Seats in the National Council are allocated to the cantons proportionally, based on population. In the Council of States, every canton has two seats (except for the former "half-cantons", which have one seat each).

External link

[http://www.parlament.ch Official site] Switzerland Category:Parliament of Switzerland als:Vereinigte Bundesversammlung

First among equals

First among equals is a phrase which indicates that a person is the most senior of a group of people sharing the same rank or office. The concept is also known by its Latin equivalent, primus inter pares, from which it originates. Examples include the Prime Minister of many Commonwealth nations, the President of the European Commission, the Chief Justice of the United States, and some religious figures, such as the Dean of the College of Cardinals of the Catholic Church. The term was also used by Roman Emperors (see Princeps) as a means of reducing the appearance of dictatorship (which was particularly important during the early Roman Empire to appease those who may have longed for a return to the old Roman Republic). A number of books have been titled First among equals.

Prime Ministers

The phrase "Prime Minister" literally means "primary minister" or "first minister." As such, the Prime Ministers of many countries are traditionally considered to be "first among equals" - they are the most senior of a group of ministers, rather than holding an office that is superior to that of ministers. It is debatable whether this description of the Prime Minister's role is accurate, however. The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom has frequently been referred to as "first among equals." In the UK, the executive is the Cabinet, and during Hanoverian times a minister had the role of informing the monarch about proposed legislation in the House of Commons and other matters. In modern times, however, although the phrase is still used, it understates the powers of the Prime Minister, which now includes many broad, exclusive, executive powers which cabinet members now have little influence over. In 1984, author Jeffrey Archer wrote "First Among Equals," a popular novel about the careers and private lives of several men vying to become British Prime Minister. It was later adapted into a ten-part miniseries, produced by Granada Television.

Religion

The phrase "first among equals" is also used by some to describe the roles of the Pope or the Patriarch of Constantinople. According to those views, the titles do not mean that the holder has special authority over the other bishops; rather, it is an acknowledgement of their historic significance. This is not the view of the Catholic Church, which considers the Pope to be Vicar of Christ, successor of Saint Peter, and clearly superior to the rest of the bishops, successors of the Apostles. Because of this, the Catholic Church sees the Pope as holding an office senior to that of other bishops, rather than merely being the most senior bishop. This claim was one of the main causes of the East-West Schism in the Christian church, finalized in 1054. However, the Dean of the College of Cardinals in the Roman Catholic Church is generally considered to be the first among equals in the College. In the Anglican Communion, the Archbishop of Canterbury is often considered to be "first among equals".

Chief Justice of the United States

The phrase "first among equals" has also been used to describe the Chief Justice of the United States. The Chief Justice has considerable administrative powers, and can assign the writing of decisions in cases in which he is in the majority, but has no direct control over the decisions of his colleagues on the United States Supreme Court. This situation is often true in most Supreme Courts around the world.

School Slogans

At the School of Dental and Oral Sugery, Columbia University in the City of New York, "primus inter pares" has been installed as a daily reminder of equality among future health care leaders. The words are transfixed under a two Bur Oak leaves and a centered acorn, as a tribute to Socrates (who is said to have philosophized underneath an Oak tree) Category:Latin political phrases Category:Latin phrases [http://dental.columbia.edu/]

Austria

The Republic of Austria (German: Republik Österreich) is a landlocked country in central Europe. It borders Germany and the Czech Republic to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west. The capital is the city of Vienna. Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy consisting of nine federal states and is one of two European countries that have declared their everlasting neutrality, the other being Switzerland. Austria is a member of United Nations and the European Union.

Origin and history of the name

The German name Österreich can be translated into English as the "eastern realm", which is derived from the Old German Ostarrîchi. Reich can also mean "empire," and this connotation is the one that is understood in the context of the Austrian/Austro-Hungarian Empire, German Empire, "Third Reich," or Holy Roman Empire, although not in the context of the modern Republic of Österreich. The term probably originates in a vernacular translation of the Medieval Latin name for the region: Marchia orientalis, which translates as "eastern border," as it was situated at the eastern edge of the Holy Roman Empire, that was also mirrored in the name Ostmark applied after Anschluss to the Third Reich.

History

Austria and the Holy Roman Empire

The territory of Austria originally known as the Celtic kingdom of Noricum, was a long time ally of Rome. It was rather occupied than conquered by the Romans during the reign of Augustus and made the province Noricum in 16 BC. Later it was conquered by Huns, Rugii, Lombards, Ostrogoths, Bavarii, Avars (until c. 800), and Franks (in that order). Finally, after 48 years of Hungarian rule (907 to 955), the core territory of Austria was awarded to Leopold of Babenberg in 976. Being part of the Holy Roman Empire the Babenbergs ruled and expanded Austria from the 10th century to the 13th century. 13th century After Duke Frederick II died in 1246 and left no successor, the German King Rudolf I of Habsburg gave the lands to his sons marking the beginning of the line of the Habsburgs, who continued to govern Austria until the 20th century. With the short exception of Charles VII Albert of Bavaria, Austrian Habsburgs held the position of German Emperor beginning in 1438 with Albert II of Habsburg until the end of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 14th and 15th century Austria continued to expand its territory until it reached the position of a European superpower at the end of the 15th century until the end of the Habsburg monarchy in 1918.

Modern history

After the abolition of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the Empire of Austria was founded, which was transformed in 1867 into the double-monarchy Austria-Hungary. The empire was split into several independent states in 1918, after the defeat of the Central Powers in World War I, with most of the German-speaking parts becoming a republic. (See Treaty of Saint-Germain.) Between 1918 and 1919 it was officially known as the Republic of German Austria (Republik Deutschösterreich). After the Entente powers forbade German Austria to unite with Germany, they also forbade the name, and then it was changed to simply Republic of Austria. The democratic republic lasted until 1933 when the chancellor Engelbert Dollfuß established an autocratic regime oriented towards Italian fascism (Austrofascism). Austria became part of the Third Reich in 1938 through the Anschluß and remained under Nazi hegemony until the end of World War II. After the defeat of the Axis Powers, the Allies occupied Austria until 1955, when the country became a fully independent republic under the condition that it would remain neutral. (see: Austrian State Treaty). Austria also became a member of the UN in the same year. After the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe, Austria became increasingly involved in European affairs, and in 1995, Austria joined the European Union, and the Euro monetary system in 1999.

Politics

1999 Austria became a federal, parliamentary democracy republic through the Federal Constitution of 1920. It was reintroduced in 1945 to the nine states of the Federal Republic. The head of state is the Federal President, who is directly elected. The chairman of the Federal Government is the Federal Chancellor, who is appointed by the president and voted into office by the majority of the lower chamber of parliament, the Nationalrat, the National Council of Austria. The government can be recalled by a vote of no confidence in the National Council. The Austrian parliament consists of two chambers. The composition of the Nationalrat is determined every four years by a free general election in which every citizen is allowed to vote to fill its 183 seats. A "Four Percent Hurdle" prevents a large splintering of the political landscape in the Nationalrat by awarding seats only to political parties that have received at least four percent of the general vote, or alternatively, have won a direct seat, or Direktmandat, in one of the 43 regional election districts. The Nationalrat is the dominant chamber in the formation of legislation in Austria. However, the upper house of parliament, the Bundesrat has a limited right of veto (the Nationalrat can pass the respective bill a second time bypassing the Bundesrat altogether). A convention, called the Österreich Konvent [http://www.konvent.gv.at/] was convened in June 30, 2003 to decide upon suggestions to reform the constitution, but has failed to produce a proposal that would receive the two thirds of votes in the Nationalrat necessary for constitutional amendments and/or reform.

Subdivisions

A federal republic, Austria is divided into nine states, (German: Bundesländer). These states are divided into districts (Bezirke) and cities (Statutarstädte). Districts are subdivided into municipalities (Gemeinden). Cities have the competencies otherwise granted to both districts and municipalities. The states are not mere administrative divisions, but have some distinct legislative authority separate from the federal government. Statutarstädte

Geography

Statutarstädte Statutarstädte Austria is a largely mountainous country due to its location in the Alps. The Central Eastern Alps, Northern Limestone Alps and Southern Limestone Alps are all partly in Austria. Of the total area of Austria (84,000 km²), only about a quarter can be considered low lying, and only 32% of the country is below 500 metres. The high mountainous Alps in the west of Austria flatten somewhat into low lands and plains in the east of the country. Austria may be divided into 5 different areas. The biggest area are the Austrian Alps, which constitute 62% of Austria's total area. The Austrian foothills at the base of the Alps and the Carpathians account for around 12% of its area. The foothills in the east and areas surrounding the periphery of the Pannoni low country amount to about 12% of the total landmass. The second greater mountain area (much lower than the Alps) is situated in the north. Known as the Austrian granite plateau, it is located in the central area of the Bohemian Mass, and accounts for 10% of Austria. The Austrian portion of the Viennese basin comprises the remaining 4%.

Climate

The greater part of Austria lies in the cool/temperate climate zone in which humid westerly winds predominate. With over half of the country dominated by the Alps the alpine climate is the predominate one. In the East the climate shows continental features with less rain than the Western alpine areas with high rainfall averages. The six highest mountains in Austria are:

Economy

alpine climate ]] Austria has a well-developed social market economy and a high standard of living. Until the 1980s many of Austria's largest industry firms were nationalised, however in recent years privatisation has reduced state holdings to a level comparable to other European economies. Labour movements are particularly strong in Austria and have large influence on labour politics. Germany has historically been the main trading partner of Austria, making it vulnerable to rapid changes in the German economy. Slow growth in Germany and elsewhere in the world affected Austria, slowing its growth to 1.2% in 2001. But since Austria became a member state of the European Union it has gained closer ties to other European Union economies, reducing its economic dependence on Germany. In addition, membership in the EU has drawn an influx of foreign investors attracted by Austria's access to the single European market and proximity to EU aspiring economies. Therefore estimates of growth in 2005 (up to 2%) are much more favourable than in the crippling German economy. Agriculture: Austrian farms, like those of other west European mountainous countries, are small and fragmented, and production is relatively expensive. Industry: Although some industries, such as several iron and steel works and chemical plants, are large industrial enterprises employing thousands of people, most industrial and commercial enterprises in Austria are relatively small on an international scale. Services: Like in other western countries, the biggest contributor to Austria's GDP is its service sector. Most notably is tourism, especially winter tourism. To meet increased competition from both EU and Central European countries, Austria will need to emphasize knowledge-based sectors of the economy, continue to deregulate the service sector, and lower its tax burden. See also: List of Austrian companies

Demographics

List of Austrian companies]] Austria's capital Vienna is one of Europe's major cities with a population exceeding 1.6 million (2 million with suburbs) and constitutes a melting pot of citizens from all over Central and Eastern Europe. In contrast to this Metropolis, other cities do not exceed 1 million inhabitants, in fact the second largest city Graz is home of 305,000 people (followed by Linz with 180,000, Salzburg with 145,000 and Innsbruck with 120,000). All other cities have fewer than 100,000 inhabitants. Austrians of German mother tongue, by far the country's largest ethnic group, form 91.1% of Austria's population. The remaining number of Austria's people are of non-Austrian descent, many from surrounding countries, especially from the former East Bloc nations. The Austrian federal states of Carinthia and Styria are home to a significant (indigenous) Slovenian minority with around 14,000 members (Austrian census; unofficial numbers of Slovene groups speak of about 40,000). So-called guest workers (Gastarbeiter) and their descendants also form an important minority group in Austria. Around 20,000 Hungarians and 30.000 Croatians live in the east-most Bundesland, Burgenland (formerly part of Hungary). The official language, German, is spoken by almost all residents of the country. Austria's mountainous terrain led to the development of many distinct German dialects. All of the dialects in the country, however, belong to Austro-Bavarian groups of German dialects, with the exception of the dialect spoken in its west-most Bundesland, Vorarlberg, which belongs to the group of Alemannic dialects. There is also a distinct grammatical standard for Austrian German with a few differences to the German spoken in Germany.

Politics concerning ethnic groups (Volksgruppenpolitik) in Austria

An estimated 25,000-40,000 Slovenians in the Austrian state of Carinthia as well as Croatians and Hungarians in Burgenland were recognized as a minority and have enjoyed special rights following the Austrian State Treaty (Staatsvertrag) of 1955. The Slovenians in the Austrian state of Styria (estimated at a number between 1,600 and 5,000) are not recognized as a minority and do not enjoy special rights, although the State Treaty of July 27, 1955 states otherwise. The right for bilingual topographic signs for the regions where Slovene and Croatian speaking Austrians live alongside with the German speaking population (as required by the 1955 State Treaty) is still to be fully implemented. There is also an undercurrent of thinking amongst parts of the Carenthian population that the Slovenian involvement in the partisan war against the Nazi occupation force was a bad thing, and indeed "Tito partisan" is a not an infrequent insult hurled against members of the minority. Many Carinthians are afraid of Slovenian territorial claims, pointing to the fact that Yugoslav troops entered the state after each of the two World Wars. The current governor, Jörg Haider, regularly plays the Slovenian card when his popularity starts to dwindle, and indeed relies on the strong anti-Slovenian attitudes in many parts of the province for his power base. However, a recent poll suggests that a 2/3 majority of Carinthians are in favour of an increase of bilingual topographic signs in order to fulfil the requirements set by the State Treaty. Another interesting phenomenon is the so called "Windischen-Theorie" [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windischen-Theorie] stating that the Slovenians can be split in two groups: actual Slovenians and Windische, based on differences in language between Austrian Slovenians, who were taught Slovenian standard language in school and those Slovenians, who spoke their local Slovenian dialect but went to German schools. To the latter group the term "Windische" (originally the German word for Slovenians) was applied, claiming that they were a different ethnic group. This theory was never generally accepted and has been ultimately rejected several decades ago.
- List of cities in Austria

Religion

List of cities in Austria] While northern and central Germany was the origin of the Reformation, Austria (and Bavaria) were the heart of the Counter-Reformation in the 16th and 17th century, when the absolute monarchy of Habsburg imposed a strict regime to maintain Catholicism's power and influence among Austrians. Despite this establishment of Catholicism as the predominant Christian religion (Protestants have throughout Austria's history remained a relatively small group), Austria's history as a multinational state has made it necessary for Habsburg rulers to deal with a heterogeneous religious population. Religious freedom was declared a constitutional right as early as 1867 and Austria-Hungary was home of numerous religions beside Roman Catholicism such as Greek, Serbian, Romanian, Russian, and Bulgarian Orthodox Christians, Jews, Muslims (Austria neighboured the Turkish empire for centuries), Mormons and both Calvinists and Lutheran Protestants. Still Austria remained largely influenced by Catholicism. After 1918 First Republic Catholic leaders such as Theodor Innitzer and Ignaz Seipel took leading positions within or close to the Austrian Government and increased their influence during the time of the Austrofascism – Catholicism was treated much like a state religion by dictators Engelbert Dollfuss and Kurt Schuschnigg. Although Catholic leaders welcomed the Germans in 1938 during the Anschluss of Austria into Hitlerite Germany, Austrian Catholicism stopped its support of Nazism later on and many former Religious public figures became involved with the resistance during the Third Reich. After 1945 a stricter secularism was imposed in Austria and religious influence on politics has nearly vanished. As of the end of the 20th century about 73% of Austria's population are registered as Roman Catholic, while about 5% consider themselves Protestants. Both these numbers have been on the decline for decades, especially Roman Catholicm has suffered an increasing number of seceders of the church. This is due partly to child sexual abuse scandals by priests as well as the alleged unwillingness of the Roman Catholic Church to implement reforms. In addition Austrians Catholics are obliged to pay a mandatory tax (calculated by income – ca 1%) to the Austrian Roman Catholic Church, which acts as another incentive to leave the church. About 12% of the population declare that they do not belong to any church or religious community. Of the remaining people, about 180,000 are members of the Eastern Orthodox Church and about 7,300 are Jewish. It has to be noted that the Austrian Jewish Community of 1938 – Vienna alone counted more than 200,000, of which solely 4,000 to 5,000 remained after the Second World War. The influx of Eastern Europeans, especially from the former Yugoslav nations, Albania and particularly from Turkey largely contributed to a substantial Muslim minority in Austria – around 300,000 are registered as members of various Muslim communities. The numbers of people adhering to the Islam has increased largely during the last years and is expected to grow in the future. Buddhism, which was legally recognized as a religion in Austria in 1983, enjoys widespread acceptance and has a following of 20,000 (10,402 at the 2001 census). A 2005 survey among 8,000 people in various European countries showed that Austrians are still among the countries with the strongest belief in God. 84% of all Austrians do state they believe in God, with only Poland (97%), Portugal (90%) and Russia (87%) in front of the countries surveyed. This is a much larger figure than the European average of 71% or Germany with 67%. [http://www.readers-digest.de/service_fuer_journalisten/index.php?id=mrd&no_cache=1&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=251&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=15]

Culture

Germany Although Austria is a small country, its history as a world power and its unique cultural environment in the heart of Europe have generated contributions to mankind in every possible field. One might argue that Austria is internationally best known for its musicians. It has been the birthplace of many famous composers such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Joseph Haydn, Franz Schubert, Anton Bruckner, Johann Strauss, Sr., Johann Strauss, Jr. or Gustav Mahler as well as members of the Second Viennese School such as Arnold Schoenberg, Anton Webern or Alban Berg. Complementing its status as a land of artists, Austria has always been a country of great poets, writers and novelists. It was the home of novelists Arthur Schnitzler, Stefan Zweig, Thomas Bernhard or Robert Musil, of poets Georg Trakl, Franz Werfel, Franz Grillparzer, Rainer Maria Rilke or Adalbert Stifter. Famous contemporary playwrights and novelists are Elfriede Jelinek and Peter Handke. Among Austrian artists and architects one can find painters Gustav Klimt, Oskar Kokoschka, Egon Schiele or Friedensreich Hundertwasser, photographer Inge Morath or architect Otto Wagner. Austria was the cradle of numerous scientists including physicists Ludwig Boltzmann, Lise Meitner, Erwin Schrödinger, Ernst Mach, Wolfgang Pauli, Richard von Mises and Christian Doppler, philosophers Ludwig Wittgenstein and Karl Popper, biologists Gregor Mendel and Konrad Lorenz as well as mathematician Kurt Gödel. It was home to psychologists Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler, Paul Watzlawick and Hans Asperger, psychiatrist Viktor Frankl, economists Joseph Schumpeter, Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk, Ludwig von Mises, and Friedrich Hayek (Austrian School) and Peter Drucker, and engineers such as Ferdinand Porsche and Siegfried Marcus. In addition, Austria is the birthplace of the current governor of California, Arnold Schwartzenegger. Although Austrians can look back with pride on their cultural past, current Austria does not stand back in art and science. Austria hosts a tremendous amount of culture, with its classical music festivals in Vienna, Salzburg and Bregenz, its modern artists and writers, its theatres and opera houses.
- List of Austrians
- Music of Austria

Miscellaneous topics

- Austrian folk dancing
- Austrian German
- Communications in Austria
- Cuisine of Austria
- Education in Austria
- Foreign relations of Austria
- Media in Austria
- Military of Austria
- Public holidays in Austria
- Spanish Riding School
- Stamps and postal history of Austria
- Tourism in Austria
- Transportation in Austria

References

- References and bibliography can be found in the more detailed articles linked to in this article

External links

- The aeiou Encyclopedia ([http://www.aeiou.at/;internal&action=_setlanguage.action?LANGUAGE=en Homepage] | [http://www.aeiou.at/aeiou.encyclop.a Table of Contents] | [http://www.aeiou.at/;internal&action=search.action Search])
- [http://www.aboutaustria.org About Austria] Austrian Tourist, Travel and Culture Guide
- [http://www.oevsv.at Amateur Radio in Austria]
- [http://www.answers.com/austria Answers.com] Article on Austria
- [http://austria.europe-countries.com Austria in Pictures]
- [http://www.austria.info/ Austria.info] Official homepage of the Austrian National Tourist Office (German, English and other languages)
- [http://www.acfny.org Austrian Cultural Forum New York] Cultural meeting place in Manhattan
- [http://www.cookbookwiki.com/Category:Austrian Austrian Recipes on CookBookWiki.com]
- [http://www.austrosearch.at/ Austrosearch] Bilingual Austrian Search engine and Directory (German, English)
- [http://www.bundeskanzleramt.at/ Bundeskanzleramt Österreich/Federal Chancellor of Austria] Website of the Federal Chancellery of Austria (German, English)
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/au.html Cia.gov] CIA's Factbook on Austria
- [http://www.dwellan.com/documents/links_at_en.html Dwellan.com] Tourism in Austria
- [http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/european/austria/au.html Library of Congress] Portals on the World - Austria
- [http://peter-diem.at/default_e.htm Peter Diem] The Symbols of Austria
- [http://www.photoglobe.info/ebooks/austria/ Photoglobe.info] Country Studies - Austria Info
- [http://radio.orf.at/ Radio-ORF] Austrian Radio stations - both classical and modern music (live feed)
- [http://www.tiscover.at/ Tiscover.at] Austria travel guide
- [http://www.anytravels.com/europe/austria/ Travel Information from Any Travels] Travel Information about Austria
- [http://www.austria-hotels-travel.com/ Austria-Hotels-Travel] Austria Travel Destination
- [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3165.htm US Department of State] Facts and Information (updated February 2005)
- [http://www.willgoto.com/categories.aspx?Destination=217&Langue=1 Willgoto Austria] Travel guide and directory
- [http://uk.aua.com/ Austrian Airlines]
- [http://www.parks.it/world/AT/Eindex.html Parks in Austria] National parks, nature parks, reserves and other protected areas Category:European Union member states Austria, People of Category:Landlocked countries fiu-vro:Austria zh-min-nan:Tang-kok als:Österreich ko:오스트리아 ms:Austria ja:オーストリア simple:Austria th:ประเทศออสเตรีย

Head of state

. When two heads of state meet it is known as a state visit.]] Head of state or chief of state is the generic term for the individual or collective office which serves as the chief public representative of monarchic or republican nation-state, federation, commonwealth or any other political state. His or her role generally includes personifying the continuity and legitimacy of the state and exercising the political powers, functions and duties granted to the head of state in the country's constitution. Charles de Gaulle described the role he envisaged for the French president when he wrote the modern French constitution, a head of state should embody "the spirit of the nation" to the nation itself and to the world: une certaine idée de la France (a certain idea about what France is). Today many countries expect their Head of State to embody national values in a similar fashion.

Constitutional models

Different countries have different executive systems but in essence four major, generalizing categories can be distinguished: the presidential (or imperial) system in which the head of state is also the head of government and actively exercises executive power, the semi-presidential system in which the head of state shares exercise of executive power with a head of government, the parliamentary system in which the head of state possesses theoretical executive power but the exercise of this power is delegated to a head of government, and the non-executive head of state system in which the head of state does not hold any executive power and mainly plays a symbolic role on behalf of the state.

Presidential system

Note: 'presidential' in this context does not automatically imply a president but any head of state –elected, hereditary, or dictatorial– who 'presides'. It is sometimes called the Imperial model, without regard for the monarchic title Emperor, rather referring to the luster. president Some constitutions or fundamental laws provide for a head of state who is not just in theory but in practice chief executive, operating separately from, and independent from, the legislature. This system is sometimes known as a presidential system because the government is answerable solely and exclusively to a 'presiding' activist head of state, and is selected by and on occasion dismissed by the head of state without reference to the legislature. It is notable that some presidential systems, while not providing for collective executive answerability to the legislature, may require legislative approval for individuals prior to their assumption of cabinet office and empower the legislature to remove a president from office (for example, in the United States). In this case the debate centres on the suitability of the individual for office, not a judgment on them when appointed, and does not involve the power to reject or approve proposed cabinet members en bloc so it is not answerability in the sense understood in a parliamentary system. Some presidential systems may also include a prime minister but as with the other ministers they are responsible to the President, not the legislature. In many such instances the office is of minimal political importance, sometimes even held by some administrative technocrat rather than a politician. A prime minister in a presidential system lacks the constitutional and political dominance of a prime minister in a parliamentary system and is often seen as simply a politically junior figure who may run the mechanics of government while allowing the President to set the broad national agenda. One could say that, whereas in parliamentary systems a prime minister may be master of his or her party and the government, prime ministers in presidential systems are usually the servants, with the head of state the master of the government who can hire and fire anyone, including the prime minister, at will. Presidential Systems of Governments are a notable feature of constitutions in the Americas, notably the United States. Though most presidents in the system are selected by democratic means (popular direct or indirect election, etc) the system also encompasses people who become head of state by other means, notably through military dictatorship or coup d'état. Some of the characteristics of a presidential system (i. e, a strong dominant political figure with an executive answerable to them, not the legislature) can also be found among absolute monarchies. It is worth noting that modern presidential systems, most notably the United States, owe their origins to the contemporary eighteenth century British constitutional model in existence at the time of the enactment of the Constitution of the United States, in which the British monarch was still the dominant force and their government was not in a modern sense answerable to the legislature. Thus modern presidential systems are the lineal successors of the Ancien régime governmental systems of eighteenth century Europe, whereas in Europe many states have evolved from a head of state-centred executive system (a presidential system) to a legislature-oriented one (a parliamentary system). In the 1870s in the United States in the aftermath of the impeachment of President Andrew Johnson and his near removal from office it was speculated that the United States too would move from a presidential system to a semi-presidential or even parliamentary one, with the Speaker of the House of Representatives becoming the real centre of government as a quasi-prime minister. This did not happen and the presidency, having been damaged by two late nineteenth century assassinations (Lincoln and Garfield) and one impeachment (Johnson), reasserted its political dominance by the early twentieth century through such figures as Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson.

Semi-presidential systems

Woodrow Wilson Semi-presidential systems combine features of Presidential and Parliamentary systems, notably a requirement that the government be answerable to both the President and the legislature. The Constitution of the current French Fifth Republic provides for a prime minister who is chosen by the President but who nevertheless must be able to gain support in the Chamber of Deputies. Where in France a president is of one side of the political spectrum and the opposition is in control of the legislature, s/he often is forced to select someone from the opposition to become prime minister, a process known as Cohabitation. President François Mitterrand, a socialist, for example was forced to co-habit with the neo-gaullist (right wing) Jacques Chirac, who became his prime minister for a time in the 1980s. In the French system, in the event of co-habitation, the President is often allowed to set the policy agenda in foreign affairs and the Prime Minister run the domestic agenda. Other countries evolve into something akin to a semi-presidential system or indeed a full presidential system. Weimar Germany, for example, in its constitution provided for a popularly elected president with theoretically dominant emergency powers that were only intended to be exercised in emergencies and a cabinet appointed by him from the Reichstag which was expected in normal circumstances to be answerable to the Reichstag. Initially the President was merely a symbolic figure with the Reichstag dominant. However long-term political instability (where governments were collapsing every couple of months) led to a change in the power structure of the Republic, with the President's emergency powers called increasingly into use to prop up governments challenged by critical or even hostile Reichstag votes. By 1932, power had shifted to such an extent that the German President, Paul von Hindenburg was able to dismiss a chancellor and select his own person for the job even though the outgoing chancellor possessed the confidence in the Reichstag while the new chancellor did not. Subsequently President von Hindenburg used his power to appoint Adolf Hitler as Reich chancellor without consulting the Reichstag.

Parliamentary system

Adolf Hitler In parliamentary systems the head of state may be merely the nominal chief executive officer of the state, possessing theoretical executive power (hence the description of the United Kingdom monarch's government as Her Majesty's Government, a term indicating that the government is theoretically hers, not parliament's). In reality however, due to a process of constitutional evolution, powers are usually exercised by a cabinet, presided over by a prime minister or President of the Government who is answerable to parliament. This answerability requires that someone be chosen from parliament who has parliament's support (or at least not parliament's opposition - a subtle but important difference). It also gives parliament the right to vote down the government, forcing it either to resign or seek a parliamentary dissolution. Governments are thus said to be responsible (ie, answerable) to parliament, with the government in turn accepting constitutional responsibility for offering constitutional Advice to the head of state. In reality, numerous variants exist to the position of a head of state within a parliamentary system. The older the constitution, the more constitutional leeway may exist for a head of state to exercise greater powers over government, as many older parliamentary system constitutions in fact give heads of state powers and functions akin to presidential or semi-presidential systems, in some cases without containing reference to modern democratic principles of accountability to parliament or even to modern governmental offices. For example, the 1848 constitution of the Kingdom of Italy was sufficiently ambiguous and outdated to give King Victor Emmanuel III leeway to appoint Benito Mussolini to power in controversial circumstances. Some Commonwealth parliamentary systems combine a body of written constitutional law, unwritten constitutional precedent, Orders-in-Council, letters patent, etc that may give a head of state or their representative additional powers in unexpected circumstances (eg, the dismissal of the Australian prime minister, Gough Whitlam by Governor-General Sir John Kerr.) Other examples of heads of state in parliamentary systems using greater powers than normal due either to ambiguous constitutions or unprecedented national emergencies, such as King Léopold III of the Belgians's decision to surrender on behalf of his state to the invading German army in 1940, against the will of His Government. Judging that his responsibility to the nation by virtue of his coronation oath required him to act, he believed that His Government's decision to fight rather than surrender was mistaken and would damage Belgium. (Leopold's decision proved highly controversial. After World War II, Belgium voted on whether to allow him back on the throne. It did so, but because of the ongoing controversy he ultimately abdicated the throne.)

Non-executive heads of state

World War II, an example of a non-executive head of state.]] A final category of head of state which could be loosely called the non-executive head of state model also exists. Its holders are excluded completely from the executive. In other words they do not possess even theoretical executive powers or any role, even formal, within the government. Hence their states' governments are not referred to by the traditional parliamentary model head of state styles of His/Her Majesty's Government or His/Her Excellency's Government. Within this general category, variants in terms of powers and functions may exist. The King of Sweden, since the passage of the modern Swedish constitution, the Instrument of Government in the mid 1970s, no longer has any of the parliamentary system head of state functions that had previously belonged to Swedish kings. But he still receives formal cabinet briefings monthly in the Royal Palace. In contrast the only contact the Irish president has with the Irish government is through a formal briefing session given by the Taoiseach (prime minister) to the President. However she has no access to documentation and all access to ministers goes through the Department of An Taoiseach (prime minister's office). Examples of this category invariably date from the twentieth century. The most notable examples of this category are the
- President of Ireland
- King of Sweden (since 1975)
- President of the Federal Republic of Germany.
- Emperor of Japan (since 1947)

Complications with categorisation

While clear categories do exist, it is sometimes difficult to choose which category some individual heads of state belong to. Constitutional change in Liechtenstein in 2003 gave its head of state, the Prince, unprecedented constitutional powers including a veto over legislation and power in theory to dismiss the cabinet. It could be argued that the strengthening of the Prince's powers vis-a-vis the legislature has moved Liechtenstein in the semi-presidential category. Similarly the original powers given to the Greek President of the Republic under the 1974 Hellenic Republic constitution made Greece more akin to the French semi-presidential model. And the theoretical power of the British monarch to dismiss their government at will would suggest that the United Kingdom should belong to the semi-presidential category also. In reality the category to which each head of state-ship belongs is assessed not by theory but by practice. In practice no British monarch has forced a government from office since the early nineteenth century, while the Greek Republic in reality even before the powers of the President of the Republic were curtailed operated as a standard parliamentary system. Unless and until a Prince of Liechtenstein exercises the theoretical powers they now possess, the principality would still remain categorised as a parliamentary system.

Roles of the head of state

Often depending on which constitutional category (above) a head of state belongs to, they may have some or all of the roles listed below, and various other ones.

Symbolic role

Greek President of the Republic, developed a personality cult.]] As the above quote by Charles de Gaulle indicates, one of the most important roles of the modern head of state is being a living national symbol of the nation. In many states an official portraits of the head of state can be found in government offices, courts of law, even airports, libraries, and other public buildings. The idea, sometimes regulated by law, is to use these portraits to make the public aware of the symbolic connection to the government, a practice that dates back to mediaeval times. Sometimes this practice is taken to excess, and the head of state begins to believe that he is the only symbol of the nation. A personality cult thus ensues, where the image of the head of state is the only visual representation of the country, surpassing other symbols such as the flag, constitution, founding fathers, etc. Other common iconic presences, especially of monarchs, are on coins, stamps, banknotes. More discrete variations see them represented by a mention and/or signature. In general the active duties amount to a ceremonial role. Thus in diplomatic affairs, heads of state are often the first person to greet an important foreign visitor. They may also assume a sort of informal "host" role during the VIP's visit, inviting the visitor to a state dinner at his or her mansion or palace, or some other equally hospitable affair. At home, they are expected to render luster to various occasions by their presence, such as assisting to artistic or sports performances or competitions, expositions, celebrations, military parades and remembrances, prominent funerals, visiting parts of the country, enterprises, care facilities etcetera (often in a theatrical honour box, on a platform, on the front row, at the honours table etc.), sometimes performing a symbolic act such as cutting a ribbon or pushing a button at an opening, christening something with champagne, laying the first stone, and so on. Some parts of national life receive their regular attention, often on an annual basis, or even in the form of official patronage. As the potential for such invitations is enormous, such duties are often in part delegated: to a spouse, other members of the dynasty, vice-president etcetera, for whom this is often the core of their public role, or in other cases (possibly as a message, e.g. to distance themselves without giving utter protocollary offence) just a military or other aid.

Chief diplomatic officer

founding fathers from the French ambassador.]]
- The head of state accredits his or her country's ambassadors, through sending formal Letters of Credence to other heads of state. Without that accreditation, ipso facto an ambassador does not take up a role and receive the highest diplomatic status. However there are provisions in international law to perform the same diplomatic functions, or at least part of them, such as accrediting with a lower title with the government, or functioning within
- He or she receives Letters of Credence, sent by other heads of state accrediting his/her ambassador to the state.
- He or she signs international treaties on behalf of the state, or has them signed in his/her name by ministers (government members or diplomats); subsequent ratification, when necessary, usually rests with the legislature. ::Example 1: Article 59 (1) of the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany states - :::The Federal President shall represent the Federation in its international relations. He shall conclude treaties with foreign states on behalf of the Federation. He shall accredit and receive envoys. ::Example 2: Section 2, Article 81 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China states - :::The President of the People's Republic of China receives foreign diplomatic representatives on behalf of the People's Republic of China and, in pursuance of decisions of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, appoints and recalls plenipotentiary representatives abroad, and ratifies and abrogates treaties and important agreements concluded with foreign states.

Chief executive officer

In the vast majority of states, whether republics or monarchies, executive authority is vested, at least notionally, in the head of state. In presidential systems the head of state is the actual, de facto chief executive officer. Under parliamentary systems the executive authority is theoretically exercised by the head of state but in practice exercised on the advice of the prime minister or cabinet. This produces such terms as Her Majesty's Government and His Excellency's Government. Examples of parliamentary systems in which the head of state is notional chief executive include Australia, Austria, Canada, Denmark, France, Italy and the United Kingdom. The few exceptions include the Republic of Ireland, where executive authority is explicitly vested in the cabinet, and Sweden. The head of state may also be described, although, again, in parliamentary systems this is only a notional designation, as commander-in-chief of the armed forces. ::Example 1 (presidential system): Article 2, Section 1 of the United States Constitution states: :::The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. ::Example 2 (Victorian era constitutional monarchy): Under Chapter II, Section 61 of the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act, 1900: :::The executive power of the Commonwealth is vested in the Queen and is exercisable by the Governor-General as the Queen's representative, and extends to the execution and maintenance of this Constitution, and of the laws of the Commonwealth. ::Example 3 (mid-20th century constitutional monarchy): According to Section 12 of the Constitution of Denmark 1953: :::Subject to the limitations laid down in this Constitution Act the King shall have the supreme authority in all the affairs of the Realm, and he shall exercise such supreme authority through the Ministers. ::Example 4 (modern republican parliamentary system): According to Article 26 (2) of the 1975 Constitution of Greece: :::The executive power shall be exercised by the President of the Republic and by the government.

Chief appointments officer

- He or she appoints most or all the key officials in the state, including members of the cabinet, the prime minister (if there is one), key judicial figures and all major office holders. In most parliamentary systems the prime minister is appointed with the consent of the legislature, and other figures are appointed on the prime minister's advice. Some countries have exceptions - under Article 4 of the Instrument of Government 1974, the constitution of Sweden grants to the parliamentary speaker the role of formally appointing the prime minister. In practice, this decision is often a formality. The last time a United Kingdom monarch actually had a choice over who to pick to be prime minister occurred in 1963, when Queen Elizabeth II chose Alec Douglas-Home to succeed Harold Macmillan. In presidential systems such as that of the United States, appointments are nominated by the president's sole discretion, and this nomination if often subject to parliamentary confirmation (in the case of the U.S., the U.S. Senate has to approve cabinet nominees and judicial appointments by simple majority).
- He or she may dismiss office-holders. In parliamentary systems, this is only done on the binding advice of another office-holder; for example, members of the Irish cabinet are dismissed by the President of Ireland on the advice of the Taoiseach (prime minister). In some instances, the head of state may be able to dismiss an office holder themselves. Many heads of state or their representatives have the theoretical power to dismiss any office-holder while it is exceptionally rarely used. Its use is sometimes controversial, such as when the Australian Governor-General dismissed the prime minister during the 1975 Australian Constitutional Crisis. In France, while the president cannot force the prime minister to tender the resignation of his government, he in practice can request it if the prime minister is from his own majority. In presidential systems, the president often has the power to fire ministers at his sole discretion. In the U.S., convention calls for cabinet secretaries to resign on their own initiative when called to do so. ::Example 1 (semi-presidential system): Chapter 4, Section 2 of the Constitution of the Republic of Korea states: :::The Prime Minister is appointed by the President with the consent of the National Assembly. ::Example 2 (parliamentary system): Article 13.1.1 of the Constitution of Ireland: :::The President shall, on the nomination of Dáil Éireann [the lower house], appoint the Taoiseach [prime minister].

Legislative roles

Constitution of Ireland can override it.]] Most states require that all bills passed by the house or houses of the legislature are signed into law by the head of state. In some states, such as the United Kingdom, Belgium and the Republic of Ireland, the head of state is in fact formally considered a tier of parliament. In presidential systems the head of state often has power to veto a bill. In most parliamentary systems, however, the head of state cannot refuse to sign a bill, but may, in granting a bill their assent, nevertheless indicate that it was passed in accordance with the correct procedures. The signing of a bill into law is formally known as promulgation. Some Commonwealth of Nations states call this procedure granting the Royal Assent. ::Example 1 (presidential system): Article 1, Section 7 of the United States Constitution states: :::Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States. ::Example 2 (parliamentary system): Section 11.a.1. of the Basic Laws of Israel states: :::The President of the State shall sign every Law, other than a Law relating to its powers. In some parliamentary systems the head of state retains certain powers, in relation to bills, to be exercised at their discretion. They may have authority to:
- Veto a bill until the houses of the legislature have reconsidered it, and approved it a second time.
- Reserve a bill to be signed later, or suspend it indefinitely (generally in states with the Royal Prerogative; this power is rarely is used).
- Refer a bill to the courts to test its constitutionality (e.g. the President of Ireland)
- Refer a bill to the people in a referendum (e.g. the President of Ireland may do so in certain circumstances). If he is also chief executive, he can thus politically control the necesseray executive measures without which a proclaimed law can remain dead letter, sometimes for years or even forever.

Supreme commander of the military

- A head of state is generally the notional or literal commander-in-chief of a state's armed forces, holding the highest office in all military chains of command. chains of command as Colonel-in-Chief of the Coldstream Guards, is nominally Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces in each of her realms.]] Example: Article II, Section 2 of the United States Constitution states: :::The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States.
- In military dictatorships, or governments which have arisen from coups-de-état, this position is obvious, as all authority in such a government derives from the application of military force; occasionally a power vacuum created by war is filled by a head of state stepping beyond its normal constitutional role, as Belgian King Albert I did during World War I.

Summoning and dissolving the legislature

- A head of state is often empowered to summon and dissolve the legislature. In most parliamentary systems, this is done on the advice of the prime minister or cabinet. In some parliamentary systems, and in some presidential systems, the head of state may on their own initiative do so. Some states, however, have fixed term parliaments, with no option of bringing forward elections (e.g. Article II, Section 3, of the U.S. Constitution). In other systems there are fixed terms, but the head of state retains authority to dissolve the legislature in certain circumstances. Where a prime minister has lost the confidence of parliament, some states allow the head of state to refuse a parliamentary dissolution, where one is requested, forcing the prime minister's resignation. ::Example: Article 13.2.2. of the Constitution of Ireland states: :::The President may in absolute discretion refuse to dissolve Dáil Éireann on the advice of a Taoiseach [prime minister] who has ceased to retain the support of a majority in Dáil Éireann

Other prerogatives

- Right of pardon
- Granting nobility, knighthood, various honours

Selection and various types and styles of Heads of state

Various Heads of State use(d) a multitude of different styles and titles, often with many variations in content under diverse constitutions, even in a given state. In numerous cases, two or more of the following peculiar types apply, not counting the primary duo monarchy-republic. In a monarchy, the monarch is the head of state. This is a relatively recent phenomenon; until the last few decades a sovereign was seen as the personal embodiment of the state, and therefore could not be head of themselves (hence many constitutions from the 19th Century and earlier make no mention of a "head of state"). Though some still maintain that calling a monarch head of state is incorrect, it has now become a widespread political convention to attach the label to monarchs. The Emperor (Tennō) of Japan is defined as a symbol, not head, of state by the post-war constitution but is treated as a head of state under diplomatic protocol, in fact second only to the Pope. For the plethora of styles in monarchies, often rendered as King or Emperor, but also many other, see Prince, Princely state and Monarchy. In a republic, the head of state is nowadays usually styled president, but many have or had other titles and even specific constitutional positions (see below), and some have simply used 'Head of State' as their only formal title.

Legitimacy & Accession

- Force is often the trough origin of power, but to keep the victor’s right, formal legitimacy must be found, even if by ficticious claim of continuity such as forged descent or legacy from a previous dynasty
- There have also been true cases of granting sovereignty, e.g. dynastic splits (not just by laws of succession, also by deliberate acts); this is usually in fact forced, such as self-determination granted after nationalist revolts, or the last Attalid king of hellenistic Pergamon by testament leaving his realm to Rome (to avoid a desastrous conquest)
- Under theocracy, divine status (as the Pharaoh's; compare divus) or 'heavenly mandate' (as in imperial China) can render earthly authority under divine law, i.e. theoretically unchallengable; on the other hand, it can take the form of supreme divine authority above the state's, giving the priesthood that voices and interpretes it a tool for political influence, control or even dominance (thus Pharaoh Echnaton's reforms were undone by the Amun-priesthood after his death, possibly even elimination); often there is no clear model, so over time power can be disputed, as between Pope and Emperor in the Investiture conflict, as the temporal power seeks to guarantee its legitimation, including a formal ceremony during the coronation (such as unction; often crucial for popular support), by controling key nominations in the clergy
- The notion of a social contract holds that the nation (the whole people, or just the electorate...) gives a mandate, as trough acclamation or election Individual Heads of state may acquire their position in a number of constitutional ways:
- The position of a monarch is usually hereditary, but often with constitutional restrictions, or even considerable liberty for the incumbent or some body convening after his demise to chose from eligable members of the ruling house, often limited to legal descendents of the state religion or even parliamentary permission. There are rare exceptions to this, such as the Popes, who nominate the cardinals which constitute the electors for every new absolute head of the Catholic church and of its Vatican City State.
- Election usually is the constitutional way to choose the head of state of a republic, and somemonarchies, either:
- Directly: through popular election; this can be made a fiction under the formula of popular acclamation; the electorate can be very selective, such as the patrician families and/or the professional corporations of a city state, or by the warriors in the case of a 'tribal' type war chief or a Roman general proclaimed by his legions.
- Indirectly: by members of the legislature or of a special college of electors, either as an expression of general suffrage (as in the USA) or an exclusive prerogative (as the heads of states of constitutive monarchies in two modern federations: the UAE and Malaysia).
- the a head of states can be entitled to designate his successor, such as Lord Protector of the Commonwealth Oliver Cromwell (succeeded by his son Richard ) A head of state may however seize power by force or revolution. This is not to be confused with the notion of an authoritarian or other totalitarian ruler, which rather concerns the oppressive nature of power once aquired, and therefore only applies if he is the true chief executive. Dictators often use democratic titles, though some proclaim themselves monarchs. Examples of the latter include Emperor Napoleon III of France and King Zog of Albania. Francisco Franco, who adopted the formal title Jefe del Estado, or Chief of State, and established himself as regent for a vacant monarchy. Idi Amin was one of several which made themself President for Life. Another type of extraconstitutional imposition, often also changing the constitution, is by a foreign power (state or alliance), either benign or, more often, rather for its own interest, such as establishing a branch of the own or a friendly dynasty.

Absent and Substitute heads of state

Interim

Whenever a head of state is not available for any reason, constitutional provisions may allow the role to fall temporarily to an assigned person or collective body. In a monarchy this is usually a regent or collegial regency, in a republic rather a vice-president, the legislature or its presiding officer, the chief of government.

Delegation

regent, hanging in a Canadian courthouse. Every British Monarch is a multiple head of state of the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man, the Channel Islands, Australia, Canada, Jamaica, New Zealand, eleven other states and all the colonies and crown territories]]. In some cases, where one person is head of state of multiple sovereign countries, they may be need to be permanently represented (except at home) by a governor-general. Examples are Canada, Australia and New Zealand, where the British Monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, resides in another of the crown's kingdoms, the United Kingdom, and so is represented in the others by a governor-general. The presently 16 member-states of the Commonwealth of Nations which share the Sovereign from the house of Windsor, including the United Kingdom, are known as Commonwealth Realms. The Governor-General may fulfill many of the roles of a head of state, but is not legally the head of state, rather an appointed representative of the head of state that may act in her place in her absence from the state. Some governors-general are considered de facto heads of state because, though not the de jure (juridical or legal) head of state, they function – i.e., in actuality – like a head of state in most or all jurisdictions. In diplomatic situations, governors-general, if treated as de facto heads of state, are sometimes accorded a status akin to a head of state, but that is by tradition and on a case by case and person by person basis, not automatic. At state banquets, for example, toasts are made to the head of state, (eg, "Her Majesty the Queen of Australia"), never a governor-general, except in so far as a personal toast may be proposed subsequently to "Governor-General and Mrs Smith" as hosts of, or guests at, the banquet. Similarly, Letters of Credence contain the name of the head of state, not the governor-general, even if it is the latter who signs and receives them. In 2005, Canada changed its policy and now all Letters of Credence are directed to the Governor General of Canada herself, not Queen Elizabeth II. This caused controversy but is now the accepted pratice.
- As a colony or other dependent state or territory lacks the authority to vest in a true head of state of its own, it either has no comparable office, simply receiving those roles exercised by the paramount power's (in person or, most of the time, trough an appointed representative, often styled (lieutenant-)governor, but also various other titles, on the Cook islands even simply KIng/Queen's Representative) or has one, such as a formerly sovereign dynasty, but under a form of metropolitan guardianship, such as protection, vassal or tributary status.

Extraordinary arrangements

In exceptional situations, such as war, occupation, revolution or a coup d'état, constitutional institutions, including the symbolically crucial head of state, may be reduced to a lesser role (legitimating the power taken over behind the throne) or be suspended in favor of an emergency office (such as the original Roman Dictator) or eliminated by of new 'provisionary' regime (sincere or clinging to power), often a collective of the junta type, with endlessly varying names and composition, or simply find itself under military authority as imposed by an occupying force, such as a military governor (an early example being the Spartan Harmost)

Theocratic, Ecclesiastic and other Religious states

In Roman Catholicism, and in some cases continued when become protestant:
- The Pope as Sovereign Pontiff, first of the politically important Papal States, after the Italian reunification ultimately just over Vatican City
- various lower clerics qualified as prince of the church (see there, e.g. prince-bishop); one case of a grand master of a sovereign order remains, but it has been vested ex officio in the pope The ancient (now orthodox) monastic state known as Athonian republic doesn't have a Head of state In Islam
- Caliphs were the spiritual and temporal, absolute successors of the Prophet, but lost political power
- Imam of rare theocratic states known as imamates
- Sheikh
- e.g. of the Sunni Sanusi order in Cyrenaica since 1843, styled Emir since 25 Oct 1920
- in Iran the Supreme Leader (at present Ali Khamenei ) and a council of guardians, all shiah clerics, hold perhaps the highest offices, but the only formal head of state is the elected president. In Buddhism
- the Dalai lama was the god-king of Tibet before its annexation by the PR of China
- Mongolia, the former homeland of the imperial Genghis Khan-dynasty, was another lamaist theocracy since 1585, sing various styles in several languages, see Khutughtu, replaced 20 May 1924 by a communist republic (which asigned the head of state role to chairmanships)

City states and crowned republics

- Both the polis in Antiquity (actual Greek and many parallels, e.g. Italic) and the equivalent city states in the feudal era (many in Italy, the rest of the Holy Roman Empire, the Moorish taifa, essentially tribal-type but urbanized regions troughout the world in in the Mayan civilization etc.), and in some cases even much later, offer a wide spectrum of styles, either monarchic (mostly identical to homonyms in larger states) or republican, see Chief magistrate
- Doges were elected by their Italian aristocratic republics from a patrician nobility, but 'reigned' as sovereign dukes The paradoxical term crowned republic (see there) refers to various state arrangements that combine 'republican' and 'monarchic' characteristics
- The Netherlands historical had officials called stadholders, stadholders-general

Multiple or collective Heads of State

stadholders-general, far right in gray)]]
- in republics (internal complexity): e.g. nominal triumvirates, Directoire, and even to date Switzerland (seven-member Federal Council, each acting in turn as ceremonial chief of state); Bosnia and Herzegovina (three member presidium, from three different nations); San Marino (two "Captains-regent");
- condominium (external shared sovereignty): monarchic as in Andorra (president of France and bishop of Urgell, Spain, co-princes), mixed as the former Anglo-French New Hebrides (each's Head of state represented by a High Commissioner).

Curiosa and residual cases

In some nationalistic regimes (usually republics), the leader adopts, formally or de facto, a unique style simply meaning "leader" in the national language, such as nazi Germany's single party chief and Head of state and government Adolf Hitler Führer (see that article for equivalents). When former crown colony Singapore ceased in 1959 to have the British crown as Monarch, represented by a Governor, it adopted the Malay style yang di-pertuan negara, compare the Malaysian paramount ruler Yang Dipertuan Agong; the second and last incumbent kept the style at the 31 Aug 1963 first independence and after the 18 Sep 1963 accession to federal Malaysia (so now as a constitutive part of the federation, a non-sovereign level); after withdrawing from Malaysia 22 Dec 1965, it became a republic within the Commonwealth, this time independent for good, and installed the same person as its first President. There are also a few nations in which the exact title and definition of the office of Head of State is vague. Following the downfall of Liu Shaoqi, who was Chairman of the People's Republic of China, no successor was named, so the duties of the head of state were transferred collectively to the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress. In North Korea, Kim Il-sung was named "eternal president" following his death and the presidency was abolished. As a result, the duties of the head of state are constitutionally delegated to the Supreme People's Assembly whose chairman is "head of state for foreign affairs" and performs some of the roles of a head of state, such as accrediting foreign ambassadors. However, the symbolic role of a head of state is generally performed by Kim Jong-il, who as the leader of the party and military, is the most powerful person in North Korea. In some states the office of head of state is not expressed in a specific title reflecting that role, but constitutionally awarded to a post of another formal nature. Thus in March 1979 colonel Muammar al-Qaddafi, who kept absolute power (still known as "Guide of the Revolution"), after ten years as combined Head of state and - of government of the Libyan Jamahiriya ("state of the masses"), styled Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council, formally transferred both qualities, to the General secretaries of the General People's Congress (comparable to a Speaker) respectvely to a Prime Minister, in political reality both his creatures. In certain cases a special style is needed to accomodate the imperfect statehood, e.g. the long de facto embodiment of Palestianian aspiration to independent statehood, PLO leader Yasser was styled 5 Jul 1994 the first "President of the Palestinian National Authority" after an agreement with the military occupying power Israel allowed a Palestinian National Authority as a transitional status including Palestinian interim self-governing and a phased transfer of powers and territories (towns and areas of the West Bank), still awaiting the outcome of bumpy negotiations -he was repeatedly put under a form of Israeli arrest while in office- on its permanent status, which could end in a Palestinian State. Some statistics
- World's longest serving current Head of State: King Rama IX of Thailand (since June 9, 1946)
- World's longest serving current republican Head of State: President Omar Bongo of Gabon (since November 28, 1967)
- Oldest head of state elected in a popular election: Éamon de Valera, re-elected President of Ireland aged 84 in 1966.

Former heads of state

1966, abdicated from the throne in 1912, but was allowed to keep his titles and palace until 1924. He worked as a gardener in his later life as an ordinary Chinese citizen in Communist China.]] A monarch may retain his style and certain prergatives after abdication, as King Leopold III of Belgium who left the throne to his son after winning (but not in both lingustic commonities of the country) a referendum retained a full royal household but no constitutional or representative role at all. In the case of Napoleon I Bonaparte, the Italian principality of Elba, chosen for his luxurious emprisonment after the survivors of his Grande Armée after the disastrous Russian campaign had finally been defeated in 1814, was transformed into a miniature version of his First Empire, with most trappings of a sovereign monarchy, until his Cent Jours ('100 days' escape and reseizure of power in France) convinced the allies, reconvening the Vienna Congress, in 1815 to revoke those gratious privileges and send him to die on barren St.Helena. By tradition a deposed monarch who has not freely abdicated, though no longer head of state, is allowed to use their monarchical title as a courtesy title for their lifetime. Hence, though he ceased to be Greek king in 1973 (in a disputed referendum during the Regime of the Colonels), or in 1974 (in a referendum after the reestablishment of democracy), it is still standard to refer to the deposed king as Constantine II of Greece. However none of his descendants will be entitled to be called King of the Hellenes (not King of Greece) after his death. Some states dispute the international acceptance of the right of their deposed monarchs to be referred to by their former title. It remains however the generally accepted formula, with most states declining to get involved in disputes between governments and deposed monarchs and simply stating that they are doing no more than recognising tradition, not supporting claims to a defunct throne. Other states have no problem with deposed monarchs being so referred to by former title, and even allow them to travel internationally on the state's diplomatic passport. See also political pensioners

Sources, References and External links

- Pauly-Wissowa in German, on Antiquity
- [http://www.rulers.org/ Rulers.org] List of rulers throughout time and places
- [http://4dw.net/royalark/ RoyalArk] quite elaborate on many non-European monarchies
- [http://www.worldstatesmen.org/ WorldStatesmen] History and incumbents of states and minor polities worldwide
- Westermann, Großer Atlas zur Weltgeschichte in German

Swiss Federal Constitution

The Swiss Constitution (Bundesverfassung in German) is at the highest level of Switzerland's judicial system. It regulates laws, regulations, and decrees of the federation, the cantons, and communities. Cantonal constitutions may not contradict the federal constitution. Amendments to the constitution require the assent of a majority of the people and of the cantons.

Jurisdiction

The Swiss Federal Constitution has a certain peculiarity when compared to other constitutions in the world. It does not provide for any constitutional jurisdiction over any federal laws, that is, laws proclaimed by Parliament may not be struck down by the Federal Court on the grounds of unconstitutionality. This special provision in the Swiss Constitution is a manifestation of how democratic principles are held to outweigh the principles upon which the constitutional state is built. Laws proclaimed by the Federal Assembly are not to be taken out of force by a court not chosen by the people. Lately, however, as a matter of principle, the Federal Court has tended to favour international law over a federal law in cases where the two conflict. The same exclusion of constitutional jurisdiction does not apply to cantonal laws, which may be interpreted or struck down as the Federal Court deems fit.

History

The groundwork for today's Swiss Constitution was laid with the promulgation of the Constitution of 12 September 1848, which was deeply influenced by the US Constitution and the ideas of the French Revolution. This constitution provided for the cantons' sovereignty, as long as this did not impinge on the Federal Constitution. This constitution was created in response to a 27-day civil war in Switzerland, the Sonderbundskrieg. The Constitution of 1848 was partly revised in 1866, and wholly revised in 1874. This latter constitutional change introduced the referendum at the federal level. Beginning in 1891, the constitution contained the "right of initiative", under which a certain number of voters could make a request to amend a constitutional article, or even to introduce a new article into the constitution. Thus, partial revisions of the constitution could be made any time. The Federal Constitution was wholly revised for the second time in the 1990