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Postdoctoral Researcher

Postdoctoral researcher

A postdoctoral (colloquially, "post-doc") appointment is a usually temporary job held by a person who has completed his or her doctoral studies. Postdoctoral appointments commonly last for periods ranging between six months and five years, and are usually research-oriented. The appointee is usually given the title of fellow or research associate. Post-doc positions are most often taken in the sciences, and in the arts, and to a lesser extent in engineering; the lucrative salaries for engineering jobs for PhDs in industry is such that relatively few engineering PhDs choose to attempt an academic path, unless their field of specialization is such that no jobs exist, or unless citizenship difficulties preclude obtaining the equivalent of a green card.

Problems associated with employment as a post-doc

Most Ph.D.s choose this route of career progression in order to obtain a faculty position; however, a very large percentage of post-docs never achieve this. In the USA less than 20% [1, 2] of graduating doctorates will ultimately obtain a faculty appointment. In the UK 93% of reasearch-only staff in universities are on fixed term contracts - the second highest proportion for any industry after catering.[http://www.aut.org.uk/index.cfm?articleid=904] The common 'lore' is that before entering certain fields, a post-doc appointment may be a necessary step in order to gain greater knowledge and experience, make connections, and build a name for oneself in research circles. However the conditions of employment for many post-docs are often very poor. Some typical problems raised are [3]: # There are no job duties or job descriptions given for a postdoctoral fellow. # The employment of the fellow is salaried and 'at will' well below industry salaries. # Fellows are encouraged to work 80+ hour weeks in order to achieve their success. # A postdoctoral fellow is not typically given the status and benefits of institutional employees, even though they often perform the same functions at a severly reduced rate. # Postdoctoral appointments last from 1-5 years on average with a decreasing yield of between 17-20% of postdoctoral fellows obtaining a permanent faculty position [1, 2]. # The valued currency of a postdoctoral fellow is often the prestige of publication, which is often at the whim and control of their employer. Cases occur where the lecturer in charge of the project will publish the research done by his or her post-doc without acknowleging the person who did the work. # The fixed term nature of the employment means post-docs are particularly vulnerable to bullying and unreasonable demands. To quote the President of USC, “One of the reasons postdocs have become increasingly popular is because a postdoc is less expensive than a PhD student—you have to pay the PhD students’ tuition plus a $15,000 stipend. …And the postdoc spends 80 hours a week or more on research while the PhD has to go to class.” [4] In traditional lore a postdoctoral fellowship may also be seen as a valuable tool to distinguish oneself from other candidates when entering the job market. Such appointments are often the "stepping stone" whereby a graduate student can improve his or her publication record and hence progress to a permanent position. In many academic fields, post-doctoral appointments — traditionally optional — have become mandatory as tenure-track positions are simply unavailable for those who have not completed post-doctoral or adjunct positions. Without post-doctoral experience, most fresh doctorates lack the connections and prominence needed to secure a better academic job. As the doctorate degree is, by definition, the highest awarded in a field, no degree is given at the completion of a post-doctorate position. Some postdoctorate positions share more in common with low-paid adjunct jobs than continuing education. In some fields in some countries, like the United States of America, there are so many graduates that post-doctoral work is almost necessary. Often academics will take a succession of post-doctoral positions before achieving a faculty position or leaving academia.

Advantages to work as a post-doc

However the extent to which abuses take place varies greatly from one research group to another and between countries. Working as a post-doc can also offer an opportunity to travel widely to conferences and pursue further the area of research in which a post-doc is interested. Working hours are often flexible and you often get to exercise a great degree of control over your work.

References

1. National Science Foundation, Division of Science Resources Studies, What Follows the Postdoctorate Experience? Employment Patterns of 1993 Postdocs in 1995, NSF 99-307, Author, Mark C. Regets (Arlington, VA 1998) 2. Committee on Dimensions, Causes, and Implications of Recent Trends in the Careers of Life Scientists, Trends in the Early Careers of Life Scientists. Washington, DC : National Academy Press, 1998. 3. see articles at [http://www.phds.org/postdoc/ PhDs.org: Postdoctoral Life] 4. Joanne P. Cavanaugh, "The Postdoc’s Plight" in Johns Hopkins Magazine February 1999.

Fellow

A fellow in the broadest sense is someone who is an equal or a comrade. The term is most often used in an academic context: a fellow is (at least in theory) part of an elite group of learned people who work together as peers in the pursuit of knowledge. However, there are no precise rules for how the title is used, and each academic institution grants the title as it sees fit.

General academic use

The term "Fellow" is most often used to describe a temporary academic post. Generally, a fellow of this type has very limited teaching duties and devotes the bulk of their time to research. A junior research fellow is known informally as a "postdoc". The position is equivalent to research associate, but whereas a research associate works on a specific project under the direction of a supervisor, a research fellow has greater freedom to work independently and choose their own projects. A research associate's salary is paid out of their supervisor's budget, whereas a research fellow is paid either from central university funds or by an outside organisation such as a charity or company. A senior research fellow is an established academic, often a Professor on sabbatical from another institution. The research fellow may or may not be granted the title of Professor by their temporary employer; if they are, they are more likely to be referred to as a Research Professor.

Oxford and Cambridge

The Colleges of Oxford and Cambridge use the term "fellow" in a more specific sense. The fellows of a College form the governing body of the College, although they may elect a Council to handle day-to-day management. All fellows are entitled to certain privileges within their College, such as free meals at High Table and the right to a rent-free room in College. Broadly speaking, College fellows fall into five groups:
- Research fellows, as discussed above, whose salaries are paid by the College from the income on its endowment. Some of the poorer Colleges do not pay their research fellows a salary, instead awarding fellowships to postdocs already employed by the University.
- College lecturers are paid to provide small-group teaching to the College's undergraduates. The position is typically part-time, and combined with a part-time research post elsewhere in the University.
- Some senior non-academic College staff such as bursars are made fellows as an benefit of their employment.
- University Teaching Officers (lecturers, readers, and professors) are entitled to College fellowships. For lecturers and readers, the process is competitive - generally the most able academics get fellowships at the richest and most prestigious Colleges. Professors are allocated to Colleges by a centralised process to ensure fairness. These fellows may or may not provide small-group teaching to undergraduates in the College, for which they would be paid by the hour.
- Most Colleges grant fellowships for life after a qualifying period. Retired academics may therefore remain as fellows. Except for research fellows, College fellows have no duties as such and are not paid. They will typically have a salaried post either with their College or the University.

Professional societies

Fellows are the highest grade of membership of most professional societies. Lower grades are referred to as members (who typically share voting rights with the fellows), or associates (who do not). How fellowship is acquired varies from society to society. It is typically involves some or all of:
- A qualifying period in a lower grade
- Nomination by two existing fellows who know the applicant professionally
- Evidence of continued formal training post-qualification
- Evidence of substantial achievement in the profession

Learned societies

Exclusive learned societies such as the Royal Society have Fellow as the only grade of membership.

US universities

Some US universities, such as Harvard call the members of their Board of Trustees "fellows". This differs from the general academic use of the term, because this kind of fellow is a non-executive trustee rather than a working academic.

Graduate school fellowships

In the context of graduate school in the United States, a fellowship is a merit-based scholarship. Fellowships include:
- MacArthur Fellowship
- NSF Fellowship
- Guggenheim Fellowship

Other uses

In Christianity, fellowship means individual Christians who are in communion with each other. Today the word fellowship is often used to designate a group, either run by a denomination or is interdenominational, aimed at fostering a sense of fellowship (that is, mutual support and common purpose) among Christians of a particular demographic. An example of a large fellowship would be the InterVarsity Christian Fellowship. In the USA, a period of medical training following on from residency is sometimes called fellowship. In medical education, a fellow is generally a medical doctor who has finished a residency and is studying a specialty. Alcoholics Anonymous considers itself a fellowship in the sense that it has no hierarchy or other organizational structure, and hence all members are equals. Historically, the word "fellow" was also used to describe a man, particularly by those in the upper social classes.

External links

- [http://scholarships.fatomei.com Nationally Coveted College Scholarships, Graduate Fellowships and Postoctoral Awards]

Faculty (university)

A faculty is a division within a university. The medieval University of Paris, which served as a model for most of the later medieval universities in Europe, had four faculties: the Faculties of Theology, Law, Medicine, and finally the Faculty of Arts, which every student had to graduate from in order to continue his training in one of the other three, sometimes known as the higher faculties. The privilege to establish these four faculties were usually part of all medieval charters for universities, but not every university could in reality do so. The Faculty of Arts took its name from the seven liberal arts: the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, dialectics) and the quadrivium (artithmetic, music, geometry and astronomy). In German (and Scandinavian) universities this faculty has more often been known as the Faculty of Philosophy. The degree of Master of Arts derives its name from the Faculty of Arts, while the degree of Doctor of Philosophy originates within German education and derives its name from the German name of the Arts faculty. The number of faculties has usually multiplied in modern universities, both through subdivisions of the traditional four faculties, and through the absorption of academic disciplines which have developed within originally vocational schools, in areas such as engineering or agriculture.

North American usage

In North American English, the word "faculty" has also come to be used as a collective noun for the academic staff of a university: senior teachers, lecturers, and/or researchers. The term is most commonly used in this context in the United States and Canada, and generally includes professors of various rank: Assistant Professors, Associate Professors, and (Full) Professors, usually tenured or tenure-track in nature. Members of university administration (e.g., department chairs, deans, vice presidents, presidents) are often also faculty members, in many cases beginning as (and remaining) professors. Most university faculty hold a Ph.D. or equivalent doctorate degree. Some professionals or instructors from other institutions who are associated with a particular university (e.g., by teaching some courses or supervising graduate students) but do not hold professorships may be appointed as adjunct faculty. Other than universities, Community colleges and some secondary or even primary schools (e.g., private academies) may also use the terms faculty and professor to describe their instructors, but this does not hold the same status as a professor in a university. Other institutions (e.g., teaching hospitals) may likewise use the term faculty. In all cases, faculty is a distinct catgeory from staff, although members of both groups are employees of the institution in question.

USC

USC stands for several things.

Education

- University of Southern California (Los Angeles, California, USA)
- United Services College (Westward Ho!, Devon, England)
- Universidad del Sagrado Corazón, or University of the Sacred Heart (San Juan, Puerto Rico)
- University of San Carlos (Cebu City, Cebu, Philippines)
- University of South Carolina (South Carolina, USA)
- University of the Sunshine Coast (Queensland, Australia)

Law

- UN Security Council, an organ of the United Nations
- United States Code, a compilation and codification of the general and permanent federal Law of the United States
- United States Constitution, the supreme law of the United States of America
- United States Congress, the legislative branch of the federal government of the United States

Law Enforcement

- Ulster Special Constabulary
- United States Constabulary

Tenure-track

:See also: Land tenure Tenure commonly refers to academic tenure systems, in which professors (at the university level)—and in some jurisdictions schoolteachers (at primary or secondary school levels)—are granted the right not to be fired without cause after an initial probationary period. Tenure systems are usually justified by the claim that they provide academic freedom, by preventing instructors from being fired for openly disagreeing with authorities or popular opinion. Such systems may also have an economic rationale, similar to the rationale for senior partner positions in many law and accounting firms, in that employees who cannot be replaced may be more likely to give accurate assessments of more junior colleagues who might otherwise threaten their positions. Another reason tenure exists is that, in the realm of academic and intellectual pursuits, individuals may produce higher quality output when they have job security than when they don't. When they have the job security and autonomy of a tenured position, academics are able to pursue their own topics of interest, which they are usually more passionate about, and produce better results. Without job security, they will generally attempt to measure what pursuits they are "supposed to" follow, and in imitation of those guidelines, produce a lower quality of output. Academic tenure is associated with university and college systems in North America, where it underpins employment: however it is increasingly rare in other places. It became politically unpopular worldwide from the 1970s, where opponents charged that it removed incentives for its holders to be productive and unfairly relieves professors of the economic uncertainty felt by other workers. In addition, declining numbers of tenure-track positions in North America, against rising student numbers, have led to an unintended consequence: the emergence of a large scholarly underclass. For example, most US universities now supplement tenured professors with non-tenured adjunct professors, who teach classes on a contract basis for relatively low wages and few benefits. For these and other reasons, tenure was officially restructured in public universities in the United Kingdom by the Thatcher government in the 1980s. It has ceased to be offered some parts of Australasia (but not in New Zealand where tenure is referred to as confirmation) and in most European countries, and it has repeatedly come under attack at state universities in the United States.

How tenure is awarded

In North America and in most cases, tenure is not given immediately to new professors upon hiring. Instead, open jobs are designated eligible for tenure, or "tenure-track," during the hiring process. Typically, a professor hired in a tenure-eligible position will then work for approximately five years before a formal decision is made on whether tenure will be granted. The academic department will then vote to recommend the candidate for tenure based on the tenure-eligible professor's record in teaching, research, and service over this initial period. The department's recommendation is given to a tenure review committee made up of faculty members or university administrators, which then makes the decision whether to award tenure, and the university president approves or vetoes the decision. A candidate denied tenure is sometimes considered to have been fired, but this is not entirely accurate: employment is often guaranteed for a year after tenure is denied, so that the non-tenured professor can conduct an extended search for new employment. Also, some prestigious universities and departments in the US award tenure so rarely that being denied it is scarcely an insult. Professors who have earned tenure at one institution are often offered tenure along with any new position (as "senior hires"); otherwise, tenured faculty would rarely leave to join different universities. Outside the US, a variety of contractual systems operate. Commonly, a less rigorous procedure is used to move staff members from temporary to "permanent" contracts. Permanent contracts, like tenure, may still be broken by employers in certain circumstances: for example if the staff member works in a Department earmarked for closure.

Revocation of tenure

Tenure can only be revoked for cause, normally only following severe misconduct by the professor. In the US, according to the Wall Street Journal (January 10 2005), it is estimated that only 50 to 75 tenured professors (out of about 280,000) lose their tenure each year. Revocation is usually a lengthy and tedious procedure. In Colorado, where the question of what constitutes grounds for dismissal of a tenured professor arose as the result of the controversial comments of Ward Churchill regarding the victims of the 9/11 attack, grounds for dismissal are "professional incompetence, neglect of duty, insubordination, conviction of a felony or any offense involving moral turpitude ... or sexual harassment or other conduct which falls below minimum standards of professional integrity."

External links

- [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-926/tenure.htm Post-Tenure Faculty Evaluation]
- [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-925/tenure.htm Teacher Tenure]
- [http://www.ericdigests.org/1997-1/tenure.html Tenure, Promotion, and Reappointment: Legal and Administrative Implications]
- [http://www.ericdigests.org/1994/tenure.htm Enhancing Promotion, Tenure and Beyond: Faculty Socialization as a Cultural Process]

Doctorate

A doctorate is an academic degree of the highest level. Traditionally, the award of a doctorate implies recognition of the candidate as an equal by the university faculty under which he studied. There are essentially three types of doctorates: research, terminal/professional (USA only), and honorary. Research doctorates are nearly always awarded in recognition of academic research that is of a publishable standard (even if not actually published) and represents at least a modest contribution to human knowledge. It is usually assessed by submission and defense of a doctoral thesis or dissertation, though in some cases a coherent body of published literature can be accepted instead. Honorary doctorates are awarded for a substantial contribution to a field but this need not be academic in character. In the EU, UK, Australia, and some other Commonwealth countries, a distinction is made among research doctorates, into doctorates (generally awarded after a course of 3-5 years postgraduate research and study and submission of a thesis), and higher doctorates -- awarded on the basis of ~10 years outstanding research, judged through examination of publications. These higher doctorates are also used as honorary doctorates, but those awarded on the basis of academic research are non-honorary. The title of Doctor is used both by and of those holding research doctorates or some professional (usually medical) degrees, but according to convention is not used by or of those holding honorary doctorates. In the past, in the United States a person with a research doctorate would use the title "Doctor" in an academic or research/development setting, and in publication. However it is becoming more common to use the title if working in a corporate setting. This is the case in most continents. In some countries the term "doctor" may by used as a title of respect even if the person being addressed has no doctoral degree.

General information

In the United States, professional doctoral degrees are terminal degrees (also sometimes, misleadingly, called "first professional" degrees) in certain given field and include: Chiropractic, Dentistry, Law, Medicine, Optometry, Osteopathy, Pharmacy, Physical Therapy, Podiatry, Psychology and Veterinary medicine. There are many others. Although these degrees may be both the initial and terminal degree in their field, students seeking to enter degree programs for them must have already completed a Bachelors degree, usually in a related field. Under European Law, holders' research doctorates from any EU country are recognised. The duration of a medical degree may vary between EU countries and may require the holder to take further examinations. Terminal/professional doctoral degrees such as the M.D. and J.D. do not require completion of a thesis/dissertation or publication of a coherent body of literature. The minimum term for a terminal (professional) degree is 3 years past secondary education, the same minimum term required for a research doctorate. Terminal/professional doctoral degrees are not research doctorates, yet they do entitle their holders to pursue academic careers on a par with holders of academic degrees. Actual practice (and legal recognition) within the field requires that the degree holder become licenced by the appropriate body (an organization not affiliated with the schools granting the degrees) and registration can require a certain amount of work experience. The titles from the first-professional doctoral degrees are not equivalent to the same title conferred in other countries. For example, outside the United States (and countries that mimic the North American medical educational system), the title of M.D.or D.M. may be only conferred as a research or a higher doctorate. This M.D or D.M. is in recognition of clinical or preclinical academic research many years after the original (professional or first) degree in medicine or veterinary medicine. The most common type of research doctorate is a Ph.D. (Philosophiæ Doctor or Doctor of Philosophy), though there are many other designations, listed below. Some British universities, including Oxford and Sussex refer to the Ph.D. degree as the D.Phil.. Minimum periods for research doctorates vary considerably: In the UK and USA the minimum time for completing a Ph.D. is usually 3 years from time of enrollment (which usually takes place after the award of a bachelor's or master's degree). Although completions within this period are possible, most candidates take considerably longer, with a common average of roughly 7.5 years often seen in the USA for the 'hard' sciences, such as physics, engineering, and chemistry. In the USA, the research doctorate normally requires 2+3 years of taught courses and then research respectively. The courses taught in the first two years may be equivalent to the content of a master's degree from other countries. Taught courses however are increasingly becoming an additional component in many research doctorates around the world. Although the Ph.D. is almost universally accepted currently as the standard qualification for an academic career, it is a relatively new invention. The older-style doctorates (now usually called "Higher Doctorates" in the United Kingdom) take much longer to complete, since candidates must show themselves to be leading experts in their subjects. These doctorates are now becoming rare, and are usually only awarded as Honorary degrees. In France, the higher doctorate doctorat d'État. The latter was replaced for academic recruitment purposes by the "habilitation to direct theses". The Habilitation is still used for academic recruitment purposes in many countries within the EU and is a research doctorate involving either a new long thesis (a second book) or a portfolio of research publications. The "Habilitation" is a qualification that demonstrates independent and thorough research ability, experience in teaching and lecturing, the potential to have a research group and, more recently, the ability to generate extra funding within the area of research. The "Habilitation" is regarded as a senior post-doctoral qualification, many years after the Ph.D. and is necesary for a Privatdozent position.

Types of Doctorates

Research Oriented Doctorates

While the Ph.D. is the most common doctoral degree, and even often (mis)understood to be synonymous with the term "doctorate", the U.S. Department of Education and the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) recognize numerous doctoral degrees as equivalent, and do not discriminate between them:
- Doctor of Arts (D.A.)
- Doctor of Architecture (D.Arch.)
- Doctor of Applied Science (D.A.S.)
- Doctor of Business Administration (D.B.A.)
- Doctor of Chemistry (D.Chem.)
- Doctor of Criminal Justice (D.C.J.)
- Doctor of Comparative/Civil Law (D.C.L.)
- Doctor of Computer Science (D.C.S.)
- Doctor of Criminology (D.Crim.)
- Doctor of Education (Ed.D.)
- Doctor of Environmental Design (D.E.D.)
- Doctor of Engineering (D.Eng.)
- Doctor of Environment (D.Env.)
- Doctor of Engineering Science (D.E.Sc./Sc.D.E.)
- Doctor of Forestry (D.F.)
- Doctor of Fine Arts (D.F.A.)
- Doctor of Geological Science (D.G.S.)
- Doctor of Hebrew Literature/Letters (D.H.L.)
- Doctor of Health and Safety (D.H.S.)
- Doctor of Hebrew Studies (D.H.S.)
- Doctor of Industrial Technology (D.I.T.)
- Doctor of Information Technology (D.I.T.)
- Doctor of Juridical Science (S.J.D.)
- Doctor of Liberal Studies (D.L.S.)
- Doctor of Library Science (D.L.S.)
- Doctor of Music (D.Mus, Mus. Doc.)
- Doctor of Musical Arts (D.M.A., A.Mus.D.)
- Doctor of Musical Education (D.M.E.)
- Doctor of Ministry (D.Min./D.M.)
- Doctor of Modern Languages (D.M.L.)
- Doctor of Music Ministry (D.M.M.)
- Doctor of Medical Science (D.M.Sc.)
- Doctor of Nursing Science (D.N.Sc.)
- Doctor of Public Administration (D.P.A.)
- Doctor of Physical Education (D.P.E.)
- Doctor of Public Health (Dr.P.H.)
- Doctor of Professional Studies (D.P.S.)
- Doctor of Design (Dr.DES.)
- Doctor of Religious Education (D.R.E.)
- Doctor of Recreation (D.Rec./D.R.)
- Doctor of Science (D.Sc./Sc.D.)
- Doctor of Science in Dentistry (D.Sc.D.)
- Doctor of Science and Hygiene (D.Sc.H.)
- Doctor of Science in Veterinary Medicine (D.Sc.V.M.)
- Doctor of Sacred Music (D.S.M.)
- Doctor of Social Science (D.S.Sc.)
- Doctor of Social Work (D.S.W.)
- Doctor of Canon Law (J.C.D.)
- Doctor of the Science of Law (L.Sc.D.)
- Doctor of Rehabilitation (Rh.D.)
- Doctor of Sacred Theology (S.T.D.)
- Doctor of Theology (Th.D.)

Professional Doctorates (also called Terminal Doctorates)

- D.C. (Doctor of Chiropractic)
- D.D.S. (Doctor of Dental Surgery)
- J.D. (Juris Doctor or Doctor of Jurisprudence (Law))
- M.D. (Medicinæ Doctor or Doctor of Medicine)
- D.P.T. (Doctor of Physical Therapy)
- D.O. (Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine)
- D.P.M. (Doctor of Podiatric Medicine)
- D.M.D. (Doctor of Dental Medicine)
- D.N.P. (Doctor of Nursing Practice)
- D.V.M. (Doctor of Veterinary Medicine)
- Psy.D. (Doctor of Psychology)
- Pharm.D. (Doctor of Pharmacy)
- O.D. (Optometry Doctor or Doctor of Optometry)

Higher Doctorates in the United Kingdom

The notion of doctorates that are higher than the Ph.D. is one that is rare in the United States, but more established in the U.K., where universities may maintain a notional ranking of the seniority of different doctorates. Higher doctorates include:
- D.D. (Divinitatis Doctor or Doctor of Divinity)
- LL.D. (Legum Doctor or Doctor of Laws)
- D.C.L. (Doctor of Civil Law)
- D.Sc. (Scientiæ Doctor or Doctor of Science)
- D.Litt. (Literarum Doctor or Doctor of Letters)
- D.Mus. (Musicæ Doctor or Doctor of Music)
- D.Tech. (Doctor of Technology)
- D.Univ. (Doctor of the University - usually honorary)
- D.M. (Medicinæ Doctor or Doctor of Medicine)

Engineering Doctorates in the United Kingdom

Engineering Doctorates are not considered a "Higher Doctorate" but are an alternative to the traditional Ph.D.
- Eng.D. (Doctor of Engineering)

Higher Doctorates in Denmark

In Denmark there are five levels of degrees: Bachelor's, Candidate's (may be compared to Master), Magister (similar to an MPhil in the United Kingdom system; a degree by research, higher than a Master's but lower than a Ph.D.), Ph.D., and finally Dr., which is the higher doctorate.
- dr. med. - Medicine
- dr. jur. - Law
- dr. theol. - Theology
- dr. phil. - Philosophy (humanities)
- dr. polit. - Economics
- dr. scient. - Science (natural sciences)
- dr. techn. - Technology Most of these grades were also used in Norway, which traditionally used the same system as Denmark.

Doctorates in Germany

In Germany, all doctorates bear the same level of merit (there are no first-degree doctorates as medical doctors do not necessarily hold a doctorate, although it is much easier for medical students to earn the degree (it is done during about one year within their course) than for those studying other disciplines (where the doctorate is a separate degree which takes 3, 5 or even more years). Apart from that, Germany uses different titles, which are written in front of the first name for addresses (within texts, the abbrevation "Dr." is common) and accompany person's name (unlike in German speaking Switzerland!). This is a list of the types of doctorates encountered most often. For each title the subject is indicated in which it is mostly awarded. (There are exceptions from this, depending on the rules and traditions of the degree-awarding university.)
- Dr. h. c. (Doctor honoris causa - honorary doctor), also: Dr. Eh. (German: Ehren halber)
- Dr.-Ing. (Doktoringenieur - Engineering)
- Dr. iur. (Doctor iuris - Law), also: Dr. jur. although this is not the correct spelling
- Dr. med. (Doctor medicinae - Medicine), also Dr. med. dent. for dentists
- Dr. theol. (Doctor theologiae - Theology)
- Dr. phil. (Doctor philosophiae - humanities, seldom Economics)
- Dr. rer. nat. (Doctor rerum naturalium - literally "Doctor of natural things" - all natural sciences, mathematicians and computer scientists)
- Dr. rer. pol. (Doctor rerum politicarum - Economics, Business Administration, Sociology and related subjects) Upon the completion of a second dissertation or Habilitationsschrift a senior doctorate (dr.habil.) is awarded. This senior doctorate is known as the Habilitation. The degree of 'Dr.habil.' or an equivalent professional experience is the necessary prerequisite for a position of Privatdozent or Professor

Doctorates in Slovakia

First-degree doctorates (also called "small doctorates", written before the name)

- Doctor of medicine (Medicinae universae doctor - MUDr.)
- Doctor of dental medicine (Medicinae dentalis doctor - MDDr.)
- Doctor of veterinary medicine (Medicinae veterinariae doctor - MVDr.)
- Doctor of pharmacy (Pharmaciae doctor - PharmDr.)
- Doctor of philosophy (Philosophiae doctor - PhDr.)
- Doctor of natural sciences (Rerum naturalium doctor - RNDr.)
- Doctor of laws (Juris utrisque doctor - JUDr.)
- Doctor of paedeutics (Paedagogiae doctor - PaedDr.)
- Doctor of theology (Theologiae doctor - ThDr.)
- Doctor of social sciences (Rerum societarum doctor - RSDr., deprecated - used by communist regime)

Higher doctorates (also called "big doctorates", written after the name)

- Candidate of sciences (Candidatus scientarum - CSc., now being replaced by common PhD.)
- Doctor of sciences (Doctor scientarum - DrSc.)
- Doctor of arts (Artes doctor - ArtD.)

Doctorates in Hungary

- D.L.A. (Doctor Liberalium Artium (Doctor of Liberal Arts))

Researcher

: For the suburb of Melbourne, Australia, see Research, Victoria. Research is an active, diligent, and systematic process of inquiry in order to discover, interpret and/or revise facts. This intellectual investigation should produce a greater understanding of events, behaviors, or theories, or to make practical applications with the help of such facts, laws, or theories. The term research is also used to describe a collection of information about a particular subject. The word research derives from the Middle French (see French language) and the literal meaning is "to investigate thoroughly".

Basic and applied research

Research is best described as a "sack-sandwiching" process; it is the foundation of the scientific method. Generally, one can distinguish between basic research and applied research.

Basic research

Basic research (also called fundamental or pure research) has as its primary objective the advancement of knowledge and the theoretical understanding of the relations among variables (see statistics). It is exploratory and often driven by the researcher’s curiosity, interest or hunch. It is conducted without a practical end in mind although it can have unexpected results that point to practical applications. The terms “basic” or “fundamental” research indicate that, through theory generation, basic research provides the foundation for further, often applied research. Because there is no guarantee of short-term practical gain, researchers often find it difficult to obtain funding for basic research. Basic research asks questions such as:
- Does string theory provide physics with a grand unification theory?
- Which aspects of genomes explain organismal complexity?
- How can computational methods be efficiently applied to larger and larger molecular systems?

Applied research

Applied research is done to solve specific, practical questions; its primary aim is not to gain knowledge for its own sake. It can be exploratory but often it is descriptive. It is almost always done on the basis of basic research. Often the research is carried out by academic or industrial institutions. More often an academic instituion such as a university will have a specific applied research programme funded by an industrial partner. Common areas of applied research include electronics, informatics, computer science, process engineering and applied science. Applied research asks questions such as:
- How can Canada's wheat crops be protected from grasshoppers?
- What is the most efficient and effective vaccine against influenza?
- How can communication among workers in large companies be improved?
- How can the Great Lakes be protected against the effects of greenhouse gas? There are many instances when the distinction between basic and applied research is not clear. It is not unusual for researchers to present their project in such a light as to "slot" it into either applied or basic research, depending on the requirements of the funding sources. The question of genetic codes is a good example. Unraveling it for the sake of knowledge alone would be basic research – but what, for example, if knowledge of it also has the benefit of making it possible to alter the code so as to make a plant commercially viable? Some say that the difference between basic and applied research lies in the time span between research and reasonably foreseeable practical applications. Thomas Kuhn, in his book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, traces an interesting history and analysis of the enterprise of research.

Research methods

The scope of the research process is to produce some new knowledge. This, in principle, can take three main forms:
- Exploratory research: a new problem can be structured and identified.
- Constructive research: a (new) solution to a problem can be developed.
- Empirical research: empirical evidence on the feasibility of an existing solution to a problem can be provided. Research methods used by scholars:
- action research
- experiments
- case study
- participant observation
- experience and intuition
- interviews
- surveys
- statistical data analysis
- mathematical models and simulations
- textual analysis
- classification
- map making
- semiotics
- physical traces analysis

Research process

Generally, research is understood to follow a certain structural process. Though step order may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following steps are usually part of most formal research, both basic and applied:
- Formation of the topic
- hypothesis
- conceptual definitions
- operational definitions
- Gathering of data
- Analysis of data
- Conclusion, revising of hypothesis A common misunderstanding is that by this method a hypothesis can be proven. Instead, by these methods no hypothesis can be proven, rather a hypothesis may only be disproven. A hypothesis can survive several rounds of scientific testing and be widely thought of as true (or better, predictive), but this is not the same as it having been proven. It would be better to say that the hypothesis has yet to be disproven. A useful hypothesis allows prediction and within the accuracy of observation of the time, the prediction will be verified. As the accuracy of observation improves with time, the hypothesis may no longer provide an accurate prediction. In this case a new hypothesis will arise to challenge the old and to the extent that the new hypothesis makes more accurate predictions than the old, will supplant it.

Maxim

It is sometimes said that "Copying from one source is plagiarism, copying from several sources is research".

Research funding

Main article: Research funding Most funding for scientific research comes from two major sources, corporations (through research and development departments) and government (primarily through universities and in some cases through military contractors). Many senior researchers (such as group leaders) spend more than a trivial amount of their time applying for grants for research funds. These grants are necessary not only for researchers to carry out their research but as a source of merit. Some faculty positions require that the holder has received grants from certain institutions, such as the US National Institutes of Health (NIH). Government-sponsored grants (e.g. from the NIH, the National Health Service in Britain or any of the European research councils) generally have a high status.

External links

- [http://education.guardian.co.uk/higher/research/story/0,9865,1485743,00.html "Britain a leader in making research available on web"] (Richard Wray, The Guardian, May 17, 2005)
- [http://www.phdcentral.com PhD Central - Open Source Network to Suggest or Find a Thesis Topic] ja:研究

Eurodoc

Eurodoc [http://www.eurodoc.net (www.eurodoc.net)] is the European federation of national associations of young researchers who are currently undertaking their doctorate (PhD) or recently finished it. As a Non-profit organization, Eurodoc monitors the situation of doctoral and Postdoctoral researchers in Europe with respect to different parameters (e.g. Academic mobility), issues policy statements, provides recommendations to academic, corporate and governing institutions and regularly organises conferences on subjects of special relevance to young European researchers (e.g. the Bologna process).

Members and Observers

The current Eurodoc member organisations are:
- Asociácia doktorandov Slovenska (ADS) from Slovakia [http://quantum.quniverse.sk/ads]
- Associação dos Bolseiros de Investigação Cientifica (ABIC) from Portugal [http://www.bolseiros.org/]
- Associazione Dottorandi e Dottori di Ricerca Italiani (ADI) from Italy [http://www.dottorato.it]
- Confédération des jeunes chercheurs (CJC) from France [http://cjc.jeunes-chercheurs.org]
- Danske Ph.d.-stipendiaters netvaerk from Denmark [http://www.phd-nettet.dk]
- Doktoranduszok Országos Szövetsége (DOSZ) from Hungary [http://www.phd.hu/phd]
- Drustvo Mladih Raziskovalcev Slovenije (DMRS) from Slovenia [http://www.drustvo-dmrs.si]
- Elliniki Epistimoniki Etaireia Ypopsifion Didaktoron from Greece [http://www.helasdr.gr]
- Focus Research from Belgium [http://www.ulg.ac.be/obj-rech]
- Lietuvos Jaunuju Mokslininku Sajunga from Lithuania [http://ljms.lms.lt]
- National Postgraduate Committee (NPC) from the United Kingdom [http://www.npc.org.uk]
- Precarios from Spain [http://www.precarios.org]
- Promovendi netwerk nederland (PNN) from the Netherlands [http://www.hetpnn.nl]
- Stipendiat-organisasjonene i Norge (SiN) from Norway [http://www.stipendiat.no]
- Sveriges Doktorander (SDok) from Sweden [http://www.sdok.se]
- Thesis from Germany [http://www.thesis.de]
- Union of Students in Ireland (USI) from Ireland [http://www.usi.ie]
- Ecosocium, Young Scientists NGO from Armenia
- Eesti Noorte Teadlaste Akadeemia from Estonia [http://www.enta.ee/]
- ATCM Pro-Stiinta from Moldova [http://www.pro-science.asm.md/]
- Young Researchers from Russia [http://www.yrr.tpu.edu.ru/] Total members in 2005: 21. Beyond the members, there are several organisations and persons that contribute to Eurodoc's activities without having a formal member status. Amongst them are:
- Ad Astra from Romania [http://www.ad-astra.ro/]
- Asociacija na doktorantite v Bylgarija (ADB) from Bulgaria [http://phdgate.net/]
- Österreichische HochschülerInnenschaft (ÖH) from Austria [http://www.oeh.ac.at/]
- Sapere Aude from Poland [http://www.univ.gda.pl/pl/info_dla_dokt/?tpl=sapere_aude] and
- The World Academy of Young Scientists (WAYS) [http://www.waysnet.org]

More Information

More information can be found on the Eurodoc [http://www.eurodoc.net website]. A free newsletter can be subscribed to at the homepage, and every doctoral candidate can contribute to the general discussion list or to one of the workgroups.

External links

- [http://www.eurodoc.net EURODOC]
- [http://nextwave.sciencemag.org/feature/eurodocexchange.shtml Science's Next Wave & Eurodoc cooperation]
- [http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v427/n6972/full/nj6972-378b_fs.html&content_filetype=pdf Article on EURODOC in Nature (pdf)] Category:Non-profit organizations

Category:Academia

Academia is a general term for the whole of higher education and research. The word comes from the Greek referring to the larger body of knowledge, its development and transmission across generations. In the 17th century, English and French religious scholars popularized the term to describe certain types of institutions of higher learning. See also: list of academic disciplines. Category:Culture Category:Education Category:Knowledge ko:분류:학문 ja:Category:学問

CNSTP

catégorie:Syndicat agricole La Confédération nationale des syndicats de travailleurs paysans (CNSTP) est une organisation du syndicalisme agricole. Créée en 1981 par des dissidents de la FNSEA, elle s'intègre en 1987 parmi les fondateurs de la Confédération Paysanne. En 1983, aux élections des Chambres d’Agriculture, la CNSTP avait obtenu 7 %. Son leader charismatique était Bernard Lambert.

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