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Paolo Soleri

Paolo Soleri

Paolo Soleri (Born in Turin, Italy on June 21, 1919) was awarded his Ph.D. with highest honors in architecture from the Politecnico di Torino in 1946. He visited the United States in 1947 and spent a year-and-a-half in fellowship with Frank Lloyd Wright at Taliesin West in Arizona, and at Taliesin in Spring Green, Wisconsin. During this time, he gained international recognition for a bridge design displayed at the Museum of Modern Art and published in The Architecture of Bridges by Elizabeth Mock. He returned to Italy in 1950 where he was commissioned to build a large ceramics factory, "Ceramica Artistica Solimene." The processes he became familiar with in the ceramics industry led to his award-winning designs of ceramic and bronze windbells and siltcast architectural structures. For over 30 years, the proceeds from the windbells have provided funds for construction to test his theoretical work. In 1956 he settled in Scottsdale, Arizona, with his late wife, Colly, and their two daughters. Dr. and Mrs. Soleri made a life-long commitment to research and experimentation in urban planning, establishing the Cosanti Foundation, a not-for-profit educational foundation. Soleri's philosophy and works have been strongly influenced by the Jesuit paleontologist and philosopher Pierre Teilhard de Chardin. The Foundation's major project is Arcosanti, a planned community for 5,000 people designed by Soleri, under construction since 1970. Located near Cordes Junction, about 70 miles north of Phoenix and visible from Interstate I-17 in central Arizona, the project is based on Soleri's concept of "Arcology," architecture coherent with ecology. An arcology is a hyperdense city designed to maximize human interaction; maximize access to shared, cost-effective infrastructural services like water and sewage; minimize the use of energy, raw materials and land; reduce waste and environmental pollution; and allow interaction with the surrounding natural environment. Arcosanti is the prototype of the desert arcology. Since 1970, over 6000 people have participated in Arcosanti's construction. Their international affiliation group is called the [http://www.arcologynetwork.org Arcosanti Arcology Network] (alternate URL: http://www.arcologycentral.org). As of 2005 Arcosanti stands some fraction of 1% complete. A landmark exhibition, "The Architectural Visions of Paolo Soleri," organized in 1970 by the Corcoran Gallery of Art in Washington, DC, traveled extensively in the U.S. and Canada, breaking records for attendance. "Two Suns Arcology, A Concept for Future Cities" opened at the Xerox Square Center in Rochester, New York, in 1976. In 1989 "Paolo Soleri Habitats: Ecologic Minutiae," and exhibition of arcologies, space habitats and bridges, was presented at the New York Academy of Sciences. Most recently, "Soleri's Cities, Architecture for the Planet Earth and Beyond" was featured at the Scottsdale Center for the Arts in Scottsdale, AZ. His work has been exhibited worldwide. Soleri has received one fellowship from the Graham Foundation and two from the Guggenheim Foundation. He has been awarded three honorary doctorates, the American Institute of Architects Gold Medal for Craftmanship in 1963, the Gold Medal from the World Biennieal of Architecture in Sofia, Bulgaria, in 1981, and the Silver Medal of the Academied' Architecture in Paris, 1984. Soleri is a distinguished lecturer in the College of Architecture at Arizona State University. He has written six books and numerous essays and monographs. When he is not traveling on the international lecture circuit, Soleri divides his time between Cosanti, the original site for his research located in Scottsdale, and Arcosanti.

Turin, Italy

Turin

Location within Italy
Region	Piedmont
Province	Turin
Area – Total – Water	130 km² (50 mi²) ##.# km² (#.# mi²) #.##%
Population – Total (2002) – Density	857,433 6,596/km²
Time zone	CET: UTC+1
Coordinates	¹
External link: [http://www.comune.torino.it/ Città di Torino]

Turin (Italian Torino) is a major industrial city in north-western Italy, capital of the Piedmont region, located mainly on the west bank of the Po River. The population of Turin city is 867,857 (2004 census), but its metropolitan area totals about 1.5 million inhabitants. The province is one of the largest in Italy, with 6,830 sq. km, and one of the most populated, with 2,191,960 inhabitants at the 2004 census. Turin is the host city of the 2006 Winter Olympics.

History

2006 Winter Olympics The name of Turin comes from Tau, a Celtic word that means mountains. The Italian name, Torino, happens to mean "little bull" in Italian, hence the coat of arms and the symbol of the city. The area was settled by the Taurini in pre-Roman times. In the first century A.D., the Romans created a military camp (Castra Taurinorum), later dedicated to Augustus (Augusta Taurinorum). The typical Roman street plan with streets at right angles can still be seen in the modern city. The capital of the Duchy of Savoy since 16th century, the Kingdom of Sardinia and then in 1861 Turin became the capital of the newly proclaimed United Italy. In 1865 the capital was moved to Florence. Since 1870 the capital has been Rome.

Law and government

Mr. Chiamparino is currently the mayor of Turin, which is elected directly by citizens every 5 years. He belongs to the center-left coalition. See also: List of mayors of Turin

Geography

Turin is located in the north-west of Italy. It's surrounded on the western and northern front by the Alps and on the southern front by the hills of Monferrato . Three major rivers pass through the city: the Po and two of its tributaries, the Dora Riparia (from the Celtic duria meaning "water," later changed to "Duria Minor" by the Romans), and the Stura di Lanzo and Sangone.

Demographics

The city of Torino grew by less than 0.5% in the last 3 years, which was attributed by a very low birth rate, contributing to an aging population. Around 12.4% of the population are under 14 years over age, while those in retirement age number 20.8%. The city has seen a sharp rise in immigrants, including the suburban areas. The population remains vastly Italian (92.1%), but there are sizeable numbers of other groups like Romanian: 2.3%, Moroccan: 1.5%, Peruvian: 0.5%, Albanian: 0.4%, and other groups.

Economy

Nowadays the city is a major industrial centre, known particularly as home to the headquarters and main production lines of the car company Fiat. The city is home to the famous Lingotto building, which was at one time the largest car factory in the world, and is now a convention centre, concert hall, art gallery, shopping centre and hotel. Other industries born in Turin are Invicta born in 1821 ,Lavazza, Martini and the chocolate factory Caffarel. It is also a center for aerospace industry, with Alenia. Some major elements of the International Space Station, such as the Multi-Purpose Logistics Modules have been produced in Turin. The future European launcher projects beyond Ariane 5 will also be managed from Turin, by the new NGL company, a subsidiary of EADS (70%) and Finmeccanica (30%). Turin is also the birthplace of major aspects of Italian economy, such as telecommunications Telecom Italia, television (Rai, National TV channel) and cinema. Most of these industries have moved to other parts of Italy, but Turin still hosts the National Museum of Cinema. The town currently has a large number of rail and road work sites. Although this activity has increased as a result of the 2006 Winter Olympics, part of it had long been planned. Some of the work sites deal with general improvements to car traffic, such as underpasses and flyovers. Two projects are of major importance and will change the shape of the town radically. One is the 'Spina' ('spine') which includes the doubling of a major railroad crossing the town; the railroad previously ran in a trench, which will now be covered by a major boulevard; the town rail station on this line will become the main station of Turin ('Porta Susa'). The other major project is the construction of a metropolitan underground line based on the VAL system. This project is expected to continue for years and to cover a larger part of the town, but its first phase will finish in time for the Olympic Games and will link the nearby town of Collegno with the 'Porta Nuova' station in Turin's town centre. This underground transportation project has historical importance for Turin, as the town has dreamed of an underground line for decades, the first project dating as far back as the twenties. In fact, the main street in the town centre ('Via Roma') runs atop a tunnel built during the fascist era (when 'Via Roma' was built); the tunnel was supposed to host the underground line and is now used as an underground car park.

Sites of interest

Collegno] Collegno Collegno] One of its main symbols is the Mole Antonelliana, which hosts the National Cinema Museum of Italy. The Cathedral of St John the Baptist houses the Shroud of Turin, an old linen cloth with an imprint of a man, which is believed by many to be the cloth that covered Jesus in his grave. The Museo Egizio has the most important collection of Egyptian antiquities in the world after the Cairo Museum. Turin offers a circuit of great historical and architectural interest: the Savoy Residences. In addition to the Royal Palace, the official residence of the Savoys until 1865, the circuit includes palaces, residences and castles in the city centre and in the surrounding towns. Torino is home to Palazzo Chiablese, the Royal Armoury, the Royal Library, Palazzo Madama, Palazzo Carignano, Villa della Regina, and the Valentino Castle. In the area around the city, the castles of Rivoli, Moncalieri, Venaria, Agliè, Racconigi, and Govone can be visited. The Hunting Lodge by Juvarra can be admired in Stupinigi and there is also the royal estate in Pollenzo. Some of these (first and foremost Rivoli, the location of the Museum of the same name) host events, exhibitions and cultural initiatives not only of local interest. In 1997, this complex of historical buildings was recognised as a world heritage site by Unesco. In the hills above the city is the basilica church of Superga, from where there is a splendid panorama of Turin against a backdrop of the snow-capped Alps. Superga can be reached by means of the Superga Rack Railway from the suburb of Sassi. The city is also famous for being the film set of the 1969 classic film The Italian Job starring Michael Caine. It is possible to visit all the locations on a special tour.

Universities

- University of Turin (Università degli Studi di Torino) / http://www.unito.it/
- Politecnico di Torino (Turin) / http://www.polito.it/

Turin World Book Capital

After Alexandria, Madrid, New Delhi, Antwerp and Montreal, Turin has been chosen by UNESCO as World Book Capital for the year 2006 because of its activity of book and reading promotion, especially with the International Book Fair, one of the most important fairs in Europe of its kind. From April 2006 to April 2007 Turin will host a festival called "Signs of Writing" composed of events, meetings, seminars, debates, letters, and performances.

Sport

The city is famous for its soccer teams (Juventus and Torino Calcio), and will host the 2006 Winter Olympics. One year later, in 2007 it will host the Winter Universiade. In a terrible air accident in 1949, a plane carrying the whole Torino football team (at that time one of the most important in Italy) hit the church of Superga, on the Turin hills. Among those who lost their lives was Valentino Mazzola, father of Ferruccio and Sandro Mazzola (who were also later to be football champions). Turin was also the city were the FISA (international rowing federation) was born in 1892.

Chocolate

Turin is the birth place of solid chocolate. It was in Turin that Doret invented a revolutionary machine that could make solid chocolate as we eat it now at the end of the 18th century. Turin produces a typical chocolate, named Gianduiotto after Gianduia, a local Commedia dell'arte mask, and many other kinds of chocolate in a host of confectioneries all around the city.

Nearby towns

Turin is surrounded by several smaller cities in the Province of Turin such as Grugliasco, Rivoli, Chivasso, Venaria, Settimo Torinese, Orbassano, Moncalieri, Avigliana, Buttigliera Alta, Gassino Torinese, Nichelino, Collegno and others, that make up one of Italy's primary metropolitan areas.

Notable natives

- Giovanni Agnelli (1866-1945) founder of FIAT
- Gianni Agnelli (1921-2003) chairman director of FIAT and very influential Italian
- Amedeo Avogadro (1776-1856) biologist
- Alessandro Baricco (1958-) writer
- Giuseppe Marc'Antonio Baretti (1719-1789) critic
- Camillo Benso, count of Cavour politician (Italian unification)
- Norberto Bobbio (1909-2004) Historian and philosopher
- Pierre Paul Caffarel (1795-1850) Inventor and businessman of chocolate
- Antonio Benedetto Carpano (1764-1815) Inventor of Vermouth and aperitif
- Robert Fano (1917-) Engineer
- Galileo Ferraris (1847-1997) Physicist and electrical engineer
- Sonia Gandhi (1946-) Politician
- Piero Gobetti (1901-1926) Intellectual
- Joseph Louis Lagrange (1736-1813) Mathematician
- Vincenzo Lancia (1881-1937) Sportsman and businessman, founder of Lancia
- Luigi Lavazza (1859-1949) Inventor and businessman of coffee
- Carlo Levi (1902-1975) Painter
- Primo Levi (1919-1987) Philosopher and writer
- Salvador Edward Luria (1912-1991) Nobel Prize in physiology and medicine
- Alessandro Martini (1812-1905) Businessman of vermouth
- Rita Levi-Montalcini (1909-) Nobel Prize in physiology and medicine
- Adriano Olivetti (1901-1960) Businessman
- Giuseppe Peano (1858-1932) Mathematician
- Aurelio Peccei (1908-1984) Founder of the Club of Rome
- Piero Sraffa (1898-1983) Influential economist
- Massimo Taparelli, marquis d'Azeglio (1798-1866), statesman, novelist and painter
- Umberto Tozzi (1952-) Singer
- Victor Emmanuel II of Italy (1820-1878) The King of Piedmont and the first King of the united Italy

Notable residents

- Edmondo de Amicis
- St. John Bosco
- Francesco Faà di Bruno
- Italo Calvino
- Gaspare Campari
- Francesco Cirio
- Renato Dulbecco
- Umberto Eco
- Luigi Einaudi
- Erasmus
- Guido Fubini
- Natalia Ginzburg
- Antonio Gramsci
- Cesare Lombroso
- Joseph de Maistre
- Giulio Natta
- Friedrich Nietzsche
- Vilfredo Pareto
- Cesare Pavese
- Emilio Salgari
- Ascanio Sobrero
- Germain Sommeiller
- Elio Vittorini

External links

- [http://www.comune.torino.it The official istitutional site] - Website version is in Italian - Also some pages in English, German, Spanish and French.
- [http://mappatorino.csp.it Experimental interactive maps] - Website version is in Italian
- [http://digilander.libero.it/fotogian/torino.home.html Photos of Turin]
- [http://www.torino2006.org/ Torino 2006 Olympic Games] - English, Italian and French. Website version is in Italian.
- [http://citymayors.com/interviews/turin_interview.html CityMayors article]
- [http://www.universiadetorino2007.org/ENG/HomeENG.asp Winter Universiade Torino 2007] - English, Italian and French. Website Version is Italian.
- [http://en.comuni-italiani.it/001/272/ Guide to Turin city] - Information and useful link
- [http://www.italianvisits.com/piemonte/turin/ ItalianVisits.com]
- [http://www.fieralibro.it/ International Book Fair ]
- [http://www.museonazionaledelcinema.org/ National Cinema Museum of Italy ] Category:Turin Category:Host cities of the Winter Olympic Games Category:World Book Capital Category:Towns in Piedmont ko:토리노 ja:トリノ

June 21

June 21 is the 172nd day of the year (173rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 193 days remaining. This day usually marks the summer solstice in the northern hemisphere and the winter solstice in the southern hemisphere, and thus is the day of the year with the longest hours of daylight in the northern hemisphere and the shortest in the southern hemisphere.

Events

- 524 - Battle of Vezerone: Burgundy triumphs over the French.
- 1621 - an execution of 27 Czech lords on the Old Town Square in Prague as a consequence of the battle on the "White Mountain".
- 1665 - First soldiers of Le Régiment de Carignan-Salières arrive at Quebec to invade Iroquois territories.
- 1734 - In Montreal in New France (today primarily Quebec), a black slave known by the French name of Marie-Joseph Angélique was tortured and hanged by the French authorities in a public ceremony that involved her disgrace and the amputation of a hand.
- 1749 - Halifax, Nova Scotia, founded.
- 1788 - New Hampshire ratifies the Constitution and is thus admitted as the 9th state in the United States.
- 1798 - Irish Rebellion of 1798: The British Army defeats Irish rebels at Battle of Vinegar Hill
- 1813 - Peninsular War: Battle of Vitoria
- 1813 - Laura Secord sets out to warn British forces of an impending U.S. attack on Queenston, Ontario.
- 1824 - Greek War of Independence: Egyptian forces capture Psara in the Aegean Sea.
- 1826 - Maniots defeat Egyptians under Ibrahim Pasha in the Battle of Vergas
- 1854 - First Victoria Cross won during bombardment of Bomarsund in the Aland Islands.
- 1859 - Franco-Austrian War: Battle of Solférino is fought. Witnessed by Henri Dunant, the results were the Geneva Conventions and the Red Cross.
- 1864 - Maori Wars: The Tauranga Campaign ends.
- 1877 - The Molly Maguires, ten Irish immigrants who were labor activists, are hanged in the Carbon County, Pennsylvania Prison.
- 1887 - Queen Victoria's golden jubilee.
- 1898 - Guam becomes a U.S. territory.
- 1915 - The U.S. Supreme Court hands down its decision in Guinn v. United States 238 US 347 1915, striking down an Oklahoma law denying the right to vote to some citizens.
- 1919 - Royal Canadian Mounted Police fire a volley into a crowd of unemployed war veterans, killing two, during the Winnipeg General Strike.
- 1919 - Admiral Ludvig von Reuter scuttles the German fleet in Scapa Flow, Orkney. The nine sailors killed were the last casualties of the First World War.
- 1939 - The New York Yankees U.S. baseball team announce Lou Gehrig's retirement.
- 1940 - World War II: France surrenders to Germany.
- 1940 - First successful west-to-east navigation of Northwest Passage begins at Vancouver, British Columbia.
- 1942 - World War II: Tobruk falls to German forces.
- 1942 - World War II: A Japanese submarine surfaces near the Columbia River in Oregon, firing 17 shells at nearby Fort Stevens in one of only a handful of attacks by the Japanese against the U.S. mainland.
- 1945 - World War II: Battle of Okinawa ends.
- 1947 - A seaman named Harold Dahl claims to have seen six UFOs near Maury Island, United States. The next morning Dahl reported the first modern MIB encounter.
- 1957 - Ellen Louks Fairclough sworn in as Canada's first woman Cabinet Minister
- 1964 - Three civil rights workers, Andrew Goodman, James Chaney and Mickey Schwerner, are murdered in Neshoba County, Mississippi, United States, by members of the Ku Klux Klan.
- 1965 - Folk rock band The Byrds release their highly influential debut album Mr. Tambourine Man.
- 1973 - In handing down the decision in Miller v. California 413 US 15, the Supreme Court of the United States establishes the Miller Test, which now governs obscenity in U.S. law.
- 1982 - John Hinckley is found not guilty by reason of insanity for the attempted assassination of U.S. President Ronald Reagan.
- 1982 - Fête de la Musique street music festival inaugurated in France by Jack Lang.
- 1989 - The U.S. Supreme Court rules in Texas v. Johnson that flag burning is protected speech under the United States Constitution.
- 2000 - Section 28 repealed in Scotland with a 99 to 17 vote.
- 2003 - Deputy Justice Fazel Ahmed Manawi of the Afghan Supreme Court announces that Aftab editor Sayed Madawi and his deputy Ali Payam Sestani will be tried for "libeling Islam."
- 2003 - Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, the fifth book in J.K. Rowling's hugely popular Harry Potter series, is published.
- 2004 - SpaceShipOne becomes the first privately funded spaceplane to achieve spaceflight.
- 2005 - Donald Tsang Yam Kuen is appointed by the People's Republic of China to take over from Tung Chee Hwa as the Chief Executive of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.

Births

- 1002 (O.S.) - Pope Leo IX (d. 1054)
- 1226 (O.S.) - King Boleslaus V of Poland (d. 1279)
- 1535 (O.S.) - Leonhard Rauwolf, German physician and botanist (d. 1596)
- 1639 (O.S.) - Increase Mather, New England Puritan minister (d. 1723)
- 1646 (O.S.) - Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, German philosopher and scientist (d. 1716)
- 1676 (O.S.) - Anthony Collins, English philosopher (d. 1729)
- 1712 - Luc Urbain de Bouexic, comte de Guichen, French admiral (d. 1790)
- 1732 - Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach, German composer (d. 1791)
- 1736 (O.S.) - Enoch Poor, American general in the Continental Army (d. 1780)
- 1759 - Alexander J. Dallas, American statesman and financier (d. 1817)
- 1763 - Pierre Paul Royer-Collard, French philosopher (d. 1845)
- 1764 - Sidney Smith, British admiral (d. 1840)
- 1774 - Daniel D. Tompkins, Congressman, Governor of New York, and sixth Vice President of the United States
- 1781 - Siméon-Denis Poisson, French mathematician and physicist (d. 1840)
- 1811 - Carlo Matteucci, Italian physicist (d. 1868)
- 1823 - Jean Chacornac, French astronomer (d. 1873)
- 1825 - William Stubbs, English historian and Anglican bishop of Oxford
- 1839 - Machado de Assis, Brazilian writer (d. 1908)
- 1859 - Henry Ossawa Tanner, American painters (d. 1937)
- 1862 - Damrong Rajanubhab, Thai prince and historian (d. 1943)
- 1863 - Max Wolf, German astronomer (d. 1932)
- 1864 - Heinrich Wölfflin, Swiss art historian (d. 1945)
- 1880 - Arnold Gesell, American psychologist and pediatrician (d.1961)
- 1882 - Rockwell Kent, American artist (d. 1971)
- 1883 - Lluís Companys i Jover, President of Catalonia (d. 1940)
- 1884 - Claude Auchinleck, British field marshal (d. 1981)
- 1887 - Norman L. Bowen, Canadian petrologist (d. 1956)
- 1889 - Ralph Craig, American athlete (d. 1972)
- 1891 - Pier Luigi Nervi, Italian architect (d. 1979)
- 1891 - Hermann Scherchen, German conductor (d. 1966)
- 1892 - Reinhold Niebuhr, Protestant theologian (d. 1971)
- 1893 - Alois Hába, Czech composer (d. 1973)
- 1896 - Charles B. Momsen, American inventor (d. 1967)
- 1898 - Donald C. Peattie, American botanist and writer (d. 1964)
- 1903 - Al Hirschfeld, American cartoonist (d. 2003)
- 1905 - Jean-Paul Sartre, French philosopher and writer, Nobel Prize laureate (declined) (d. 1980)
- 1908 - Yoon Bong-Gil, Korean resister against Japanese occupation of Korea (d. 1932)
- 1912 - Mary McCarthy, American writer (d. 1989)
- 1914 - William Vickrey, Canadian economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1996)
- 1919 - Gower Champion, dancer and choreographer (d. 1980)
- 1919 - Gérard Pelletier, French journalist, politician, and diplomat (d. 1997)
- 1921 - Judy Holliday, American actress (d. 1965)
- 1921 - Jane Russell, American actress
- 1925 - Maureen Stapleton, American actress
- 1926 - Conrad Hall, Tahitian-born cinematographer (d. 2003)
- 1927 - Carl Stokes, Mayor of Cleveland, Ohio (d. 1996)
- 1930 - Sir Gerald Kaufman, British politician
- 1931 - Margaret Mary O'Shaughnessy Heckler, U.S. Secretary of Health and Human Services
- 1935 - Françoise Sagan, French writer (d. 2004)
- 1939 - Ruben Berrios, Puerto Rican politician
- 1940 - Mariette Hartley, American actress
- 1942 - Henry Taylor, American poet
- 1943 - Salomé, Spanish singer
- 1944 - Ray Davies, English musician (The Kinks)
- 1946 - Brenda Holloway, American musician
- 1947 - Meredith Baxter, American actress
- 1947 - Michael Gross, American actor
- 1947 - Shirin Ebadi, Iranian activist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize
- 1948 - Ian McEwan, English writer
- 1948 - Lionel Rose, Australian boxer
- 1948 - Andrzej Sapkowski, Polish writer
- 1950 - Anne Carson, Canadian poet
- 1951 - Nils Lofgren, American musician
- 1953 - Benazir Bhutto, Prime Minister of Pakistan
- 1954 - Robert Menasse, Austrian writer
- 1955 - Tim Bray, Canadian computer programmer
- 1955 - Michel Platini, French footballer
- 1955 - Leigh McCloskey, American actor
- 1957 - Berkeley Breathed, American cartoonist and author
- 1958 - Gennady Padalka, cosmonaut
- 1959 - Marcella Detroit, singer and songwriter (Shakespear's Sister)
- 1959 - Kathy Mattea, American country singer
- 1962 - Viktor Tsoi, Russian musician
- 1964 - Doug Savant, American actor
- 1966 - Rudi Bakhtiar, American journalist
- 1970 - Sindee Coxx, American pornographic actress
- 1973 - Juliette Lewis, American actress
- 1976 - Mike Einziger, American musician (Incubus)
- 1976 - Nigel Lappin, Australian footballer
- 1981 - Brandon Flowers, American singer and keyboardist (The Killers)
- 1982 - Prince William of Wales
- 1985 - Lee Croft, English footballer

Deaths

- 1305 - King Wenceslaus II of Bohemia and Poland (b. 1271)
- 1377 - King Edward III of England (b. 1312)
- 1527 - Niccolò Machiavelli, Italian historian and political author (b. 1469)
- 1529 - John Skelton, English poet
- 1547 - Sebastiano del Piombo, Italian painter (b. 1485)
- 1582 - Oda Nobunaga, Japanese warlord (b. 1534)
- 1591 - Aloysius Gonzaga, Italian saint (b. 1568)
- 1621 - Kryštof Harant, Polish soldier, writer, and composer (b. 1564)
- 1652 - Inigo Jones, English architect (b. 1573)
- 1738 - Charles Townshend, 2nd Viscount Townshend, English statesman (b. 1674)
- 1796 - Richard Gridley, American Revolutionary soldier (b. 1710)
- 1824 - Étienne Aignan, French writer (b. 1773)
- 1874 - Anders Jonas Ångström, Swedish physicist (b. 1814)
- 1908 - Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Russian composer (b. 1844)
- 1914 - Bertha von Suttner, Austrian writer and pacifist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1843)
- 1934 - Thorne Smith, American author (b. 1892)
- 1951 - Charles Dillon Perrine, American astronomer (b. 1867)
- 1952 - Wilfrid 'Wop' May, Canadian aviation pioneer (b. 1896)
- 1957 - Johannes Stark, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1874)
- 1964 - Andrew Goodman, American civil rights activist (b. 1943)
- 1964 - James Chaney, American civil rights activist (b. 1943)
- 1964 - Michael Schwerner, American civil rights activist (b. 1939)
- 1969 - Maureen Connolly, American tennis player (b. 1934)
- 1970 - Sukarno, President of Indonesia (b. 1901)
- 1976 - Margaret Herrick, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences director (b. 1902)
- 1979 - Angus Maclise, American mystic, shaman, musician, and composer (b. 1938)
- 1980 - Bert Kaempfert, German orchestra leader and songwriter (b. 1923)
- 1985 - Tage Erlander, Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1901)
- 1997 - Fidel Velázquez Sánchez, Mexican labor leader (b. 1900)
- 2000 - Alan Hovhaness, American composer (b. 1911)
- 2001 - Carroll O'Connor, American actor (b. 1924)
- 2001 - John Lee Hooker, American musician (b. 1916)
- 2003 - Roger Neilson, Canadian hockey coach (b. 1934)
- 2003 - Leon Uris, American writer (b. 1924)
- 2004 - Leonel Brizola, Brazillian politician (b. 1922)
- 2005 - Jaime Cardinal Sin, Filipino Catholic Archbishop of Manila (b. 1928)

Holidays and Observances

- Summer solstice (Northern hemisphere) and Winter solstice (Southern hemisphere)
- Astrology: First day of sun sign Cancer
- National Aboriginal Day in Canada (starting in 1996)
- Midsummer – Neopagan festival – Litha
- National Day of Greenland
- Fête de la Musique in France, Belgium and Switzerland.

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/21 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050621.html The New York Times: On This Day] ---- June 20 - June 22 - May 21 - July 21 – listing of all days ko:6월 21일 ms:21 Jun ja:6月21日 simple:June 21 th:21 มิถุนายน

1919

1919 (MCMXIX) was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar).

Events

January

- January 1 - Iolaire sinking disaster
- January 1 - Edsel Ford succeeds his father as head of the Ford Motor Company
- January 5 - Spartacist uprising - Socialist demonstrations in Berlin turn into attempted communist revolution
- January 9 - Spartacus revolutionary council folds – Friedrich Ebert orders Freikorps into action
- January 10-January 12 - Freikorps attack Spartacus supporters around Berlin
- January 11 - Romania annexes Transylvania.
- January 13 - Worker’s councils in Berlin end the general strike - Spartacus week is over
- January 15 - Murder of Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht in the aftermath of Spartacus uprising
- January 15 - The Boston Molasses Disaster: Wave of molasses sweeps through Boston, killing 21 and injuring 150
- January 15 - Ignacy Jan Paderewski becomes Premier of Poland
- January 16 - The 18th Amendment, authorizing Prohibition, goes into effect in the United States
- January 18 - World War I: A peace conference opens in Versailles, France.
- January 18 - Bentley Motors is founded
- January 21 - the First Dáil Éireann meets in the Mansion House in Dublin. It is from this meeting that the Irish state dates its existence.
- January 25 - The League of Nations is founded

February-April

- February 1 - The first Miss America is crowned (New York City).
- February 3 - Soviet troops occupy Ukraine
- February 11 - Friedrich Ebert (SPD), is elected President of Germany.
- February 14 - Polish-Soviet War begins
- February 25 - Oregon places a 1 cent per US gallon (26 ¢/L) tax on gasoline, becoming the first U.S. state to levy a gasoline tax.
- February 26 - An act of the United States Congress establishes most of the Grand Canyon as a United States National Park (see Grand Canyon National Park).
- March 1 - March 1st Movement against Japanese colonial rule in Korea.
- March 2 - The first Communist International meets in Moscow
- March 15 - The American Legion forms in Paris
- March 21 - The Chinese High School was established in Singapore by Mr. Tan Kah Kee
- March 23 - In Milan, Italy, Benito Mussolini founds his Fascist political movement.
- March 31 - General strike begins in the Ruhr
- April 6-April 7 - Communist People’s Republic of Munich founded
- April 13 - At the Amritsar Massacre, British and Gurkha troops massacre 379 Indians.
- April 14 - Emperor of Austria moves to exile in Switzerland
- April 25 - Bauhaus movement founded
- April 25 - ANZAC day is celebrated for the first time in Australia.
- April 25 - Pancho Villa takes Parral in Mexico - hangs mayor and his two sons

May-June

- May 1 - Large left-wing demonstration in France leads to a violent confrontation with the police
- May 1 - Weimar Republic troops and Freikorps take over Munich and crush the Soviet Republic of Bavaria
- May 1 - The May Day Riots break out in Cleveland, Ohio – two people killed, forty injured, and one hundred and sixteen arrested
- May 3 - People's Republic of Munich is crushed
- May 4 - May Fourth Movement opposes foreign colonizers in China
- May 15 - Winnipeg launches general strike for better wages and working conditions.
- May 16 - US Navy Naval Curtiss aircraft NC-4 commanded by Albert Cushing Read departs Trepassey, Newfoundland, for Lisbon via the Azores on the first transatlantic flight
- May 17 - Committee of One Thousand forms to oppose Winnipeg General Strike
- May 23 - The University of California opens it second campus in Los Angeles. Initially called Southern Branch of the University of California (SBUC), it is eventually renamed the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA).
- May 25 - Volcano Kelut erupts in Java – 16.000 dead
- May 29 - Einstein's theory of general relativity confirmed by Arthur Eddington's observation of a total eclipse of the Sun.
- June 4 - Women's rights: The United States Congress approves the 19th Amendment to the United States Constitution, which would guarantee suffrage to women, and sends it to the U.S. states for ratification.
- June 14 - John Alcock and Arthur Brown depart St. John's, Newfoundland on the first nonstop transatlantic flight (they landed at Clifden, County Galway, Ireland the next day). [http://www.aviation-history.com/airmen/alcock.htm]
- June 15 - Pancho Villa attacks Ciudad Juarez. When the bullets begin to fly to the US side of the border, 2 units of the US 7th Cavalry regiment cross the border and repulse Villa's forces
- June 21 - Royal Canadian Mounted Police fire a volley into a crowd of unemployed war veterans, killing two, during Winnipeg General Strike.
- June 21 - Admiral Ludvig von Reuter scuttles the German fleet in Scapa Flow, Orkney. The nine sailors killed were the last casualties of the First World War.
- June 28 - The Treaty of Versailles is signed, ending World War I with Germany.

July-November

- July 6 - The British dirigible R-34 lands in New York, completing the first crossing of the Atlantic by an airship.
- July 31 - Strike of policemen in London and Liverpool for recognition of the National Union of Police and Prison Officers. Over 2,000 strikers are dismissed.
- August 11 - In Germany, the Weimar Constitution is passed into law.
- August 19 - Afghanistan gains independence from the United Kingdom.
- 16 August-26 August - First Silesian Uprising, the Poles in Upper Silesia rise against the Germans
- August 31 - American Communist Party is established
- September 10 - Treaty of Saint-Germain is signed, ending World War I with Austria.
- September 10-September 15: The Florida Keys Hurricane kills 600 in the Gulf of Mexico, Florida and Texas.
- September 23 - Belenenses is founded.
- September 27 - Last British troops leave Archangel, Russia and leave fighting to the Russians
- September 28 - Omaha Riot - lynch mob besieges the police station and courthouse in Omaha, Nebraska and lynch alleged black rapist Will Brown
- October 1 - Elaine Race Riot breaks out in Arkansas
- October 2 - US President Woodrow Wilson suffers a massive stroke, leaving him partially paralyzed.
- October 9 - Black Sox scandal: The Cincinnati Reds "win" the World Series.
- October 9 - Boston police strike
- October 13 - Convention relating to the Regulation of Aerial Navigation signed.
- October 28 - Prohibition begins: The United States Congress passes the Volstead Act over President Woodrow Wilson's veto.
- November - At end of month health officials declare the global Spanish Flu Pandemic over
- November 10 - The first national convention of the American Legion is held in Minneapolis, Minnesota (convention ended on November 12).
- November 11 - The Centralia Massacre in Centralia, Washington results the deaths of four members of the American Legion and the lynching of a local leader of the IWW.
- November 16 - Admiral Horthy conquers Budapest from Bela Kuns Soviet Republic
- November 27 - The Treaty of Neuilly is signed between Allies and Bulgaria.
- November 28 - The American-born Lady Astor is elected to the British House of Commons, becoming the first female MP to take a seat on December 1.

December

- December 5 - Turkish ministry of war releases Greeks, Armenians and Jews from military service
- December 12 - Gabriele D'Annunzio with his entourage marches into Fiume and convinces the Italian troops to join him
- December 30 - Lincoln's Inn, in London admits its first female bar student.
- The Paris Peace Conference

Unknown dates

- The Åland Islands vote for a return to Swedish rule in a referendum.
- Les Champs Magnetiques, the first automatic book, is written by Andre Breton and Philippe Soupault.
- XWA (now CFCF), in Montreal, Quebec, is the first public radio station in North America to go on the air.
- Various strikes in USA: Strike of US railroad workers; Longshoreman’s strike; The Great Steel Strike; General strike in Seattle, Washington.
- Female suffrage in Germany and Luxembourg
- Henri Desire Landru captured
- Marcel Tolkowsky's Diamond Design is published.
- The International Astronomical Union is founded.
- World League Against Alcoholism established by Anti-Saloon League.

Births

- Langdon Brown Gilkey - American Christian Protestant Ecumenical theologian (d. 2004)

January-April

- January 1 - J. D. Salinger, American novelist
- January 13 - Robert Stack, American actor (d. 2003)
- January 14 - Andy Rooney, American journalist
- January 23 - Hans Hass, Austrian zoologist
- January 23 - Ernie Kovacs, American comedian (d. 1962)
- January 25 - Edwin Newman, American journalist and writer
- January 26 - Valentino Mazzola, Italian footballer (d. 1949)
- January 27 - Ross Bagdasarian, American musician and actor (d. 1972)
- January 31 - Jackie Robinson, baseball player (d. 1972)
- February 5 - Red Buttons, American actor
- February 5 - Andreas Papandreou, Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1996)
- February 11 - Eva Gabor, Hungarian actress (d. 1995)
- February 11 - Eddie Robinson, American football coach
- February 12 - Forrest Tucker, American actor (d. 1986)
- February 13 - Tennessee Ernie Ford, American musician (d. 1991)
- February 26 - Rie Mastenbroek, Dutch swimmer (d. 2003)
- March 2 - Jennifer Jones, American actress
- March 15 - Lawrence Tierney, American actor (d. 2002)
- March 17 - Nat King Cole, American singer (d. 1965)
- March 24 - Lawrence Ferlinghetti, American author and publisher
- March 24 - Robert Heilbroner, American economist (d. 2005)
- March 29 - Eileen Heckart, American actress (d. 2001)
- March 30 - McGeorge Bundy, U.S. National Security Advisor (d. 1996)
- April 1 - Joseph Murray, American surgeon, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- April 8 - Ian Douglas Smith, Prime Minister of Rhodesia
- April 19 - Merce Cunningham, American dancer and choreographer
- April 22 - Donald J. Cram, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2001)

May-August

- May 1 - Dan O'Herlihy, Irish film actor (d. 2005)
- May 3 - John Cullen Murphy, American comic strip artist (d. 2004)
- May 3 - Pete Seeger, American singer and musician
- May 7 - Eva Peron, wife of Argentine President Juan Peron (d. 1952)
- May 8 - Lex Barker, American actor (d. 1973)
- May 16 - Liberace, American pianist (d. 1987)
- May 18 - Dame Margot Fonteyn, English ballet dancer (d. 1991)
- May 20 - George Gobel, American comedian (d. 1991)
- May 23 - Betty Garrett, American actress and dancer
- June 4 - Robert Merrill, American baritone (d. 2004)
- June 5 - Richard Scarry, American children's author (d. 1994)
- June 19 - Pauline Kael, American film critic (d. 2001)
- June 21 - Gérard Pelletier, French journalist, politician, and diplomat (d. 1997)
- June 26 - Richard Neustadt, American political historian (d. 2003)
- July 6 - Ernst Haefliger, Swiss tenor
- July 7 - Jon Pertwee, British actor (d. 1996)
- July 15 - Iris Murdoch, Irish novelist (d. 1999)
- July 20 - Edmund Hillary, New Zealand mountaineer
- July 31 - Maurice Boitel, French painter
- August 11 - Ginette Neveu, French violinist (d. 1949)
- August 28 - Godfrey Hounsfield, English electrical engineer and inventor, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 2004)

September-December

- September 11 - Ota Sik, Czech economist and politician (d. 2004)
- September 21 - Fazlur Rahman, Pakistani Islamic scholar (d. 1988)
- September 27 - James H. Wilkinson, English mathematician (d. 1986)
- October 3 - James M. Buchanan, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate
- October 5 - Donald Pleasence, English actor (d. 1995)
- October 11 - Art Blakey, American jazz drummer (d. 1990)
- October 12 - Doris Miller, U.S. Navy cook (d. 1943)
- October 16 - Kathleen Winsor, American writer (d. 2003)
- October 18 - Pierre Elliott Trudeau, Prime Minister of Canada (d. 2000)
- October 22 - Doris Lessing, British writer
- October 26 - James E. Myers, American songwriter (d. 2001)
- October 26 - Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran (d. 1980)
- November 3 - Jesús Blasco, Spanish comic book author (d. 1995)
- November 5 - Myron Floren, American accordionist (d. 2005)
- November 10 - Mikhail Kalashnikov, Russian firearms inventor
- November 14 - Lisa Otto, German soprano
- November 15 - Roy Burden, Canadian World War II pilot (d. 2005)
- November 18 - Andrée Borrel, French World War II heroine (d. 1944)
- November 28 - Keith Miller, Australian sportsman (d. 2004)
- December 6 - Paul de Man, Belgian-born literary critic (d. 1983)
- December 8 - Moisei Vainberg, Polish composer (d. 1996)
- December 9 - William Lipscomb, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
- December 31 - Tommy Byrne, baseball player

Deaths

- January 6 - Theodore Roosevelt, 26th President of the United States, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1858)
- January 6 - Max Heindel, Christian occultist, astrologer, and mystic (b. 1865)
- January 15 - Karl Liebknecht, German politician (executed) (b. 1871)
- January 15 - Rosa Luxemburg, German politician (executed)
- January 18 - Prince John of the United Kingdom (b. 1905)
- January 27 - Endre Ady, Hungarian poet (b. 1877)
- February 17 - Wilfrid Laurier, seventh Prime Minister of Canada (b. 1841)
- April 4 - Sir William Crookes, English chemist and physicist (b. 1832)
- April 15 - Jane Delano, American nurse and founder or the American Red Cross Nursing Service (b. 1862)
- May 6 - L. Frank Baum, American writer (b. 1856)
- May 14 - Henry John Heinz, American businessman (b. 1844)
- June 29 - José Gregorio Hernández, Venezuelan medician and saint (b. 1864)
- June 30 - John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh, English physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1842)
- July 15 - Hermann Emil Fischer, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1852)
- July 26 - Sir Edward Poynter, British painter (b. 1936)
- August 9 - Ruggiero Leoncavallo, Italian composer (b. 1857)
- August 11 - Andrew Carnegie, Scottish-born businessman and philanthropist (b. 1835)
- October 7 - Alfred Deakin, second Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1856)
- October 13 - Karl Adolph Gjellerup, Danish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1857)
- October 18 - Viscount William Astor, American financier and statesman (b. 1848)
- November 15 - Alfred Werner, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1866)
- December 3 - Pierre-Auguste Renoir, French painter (b. 1841)

Nobel Prizes

- Physics - Johannes Stark
- Chemistry - not awarded
- Physiology or Medicine - Jules Bordet
- Literature - Carl Friedrich Georg Spitteler Category:1919 ko:1919년 ms:1919 ja:1919年 simple:1919 th:พ.ศ. 2462

Architecture

Architecture (in Greek αρχή = start and τέχνη = craftsmanship) is the art and science of designing buildings and structures. A wider definition would include within its scope the design of the total built environment, from the macrolevel of town planning, urban design, and landscape architecture to the microlevel of furniture. furniture, Athens, Greece]] However, the widest definition in modern use refers to the organization, articulation, and interfaces of any built (or To Be Built— TBB) entity, whether a building or a communications' network. That is, an architecture, in its broadest sense, shows how the components of a built or TBB entity fit together. An architecture may be considered a translation between a user's needs and a builder's building instructions, or requirements. The components of an architecture may be already built items, or specified items (items whose building requirements have been completed), or To Be Specified items (items whose building requirements have not yet been been completed, and for which only user or builder needs may be assigned).

Introduction

The skills of the architect are used in complex building types such as the skyscraper, hospital, stadium, airport, etc. to less complicated projects such as commercial and residential buildings and development. Many pieces of architecture can be seen as cultural and political symbols. The role of the architect, though changing, has been central to the successful (and sometimes unsuccessful) design and implementation of the built environment in which we live.

Scope and intentions

According to the very earliest surviving work on the subject, Vitruvius' De architectura, good buildings satisfy three core principles: Firmness, Commodity, and Delight; architecture can be said to be a balance and coordination among these three elements, with none overpowering the others. A modern day definition sees architecture as addressing aesthetic, structural and functional considerations. However, looked at another way, function itself is seen as encompassing all criteria, including aesthetic and psychological ones. Architecture is a multi-disciplinary field, including within its fold mathematics, science, art, technology, social sciences, politics, history, philosophy, and so on. In Vitruvius' words: "Architecture is a science, arising out of many other sciences, and adorned with much and varied learning: by the help of which a judgement is formed of those works which are the result of other arts". He adds that an architect should be well versed in fields such as music, astronomy, etc. Philosophy is a particular favourite; in fact the approach of an architect to their subject is often called their philosophy. Rationalism, empiricism, structuralism, poststructuralism, and phenomenology are some topics from philosophy that have influenced architecture. phenomenology, Italy]] # Translation of firmitatis utilitatis venustatis [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/home.html] due to Henry Wotton, 1624 [http://www.gardenvisit.com/landscape/LIH/history/vitruvius.htm#ch1-3].

Theory and practice

Architecture and buildings

The difference between architecture and building is a subject matter that has engaged the attention of many. According to Nikolaus Pevsner, European historian of the early 20th century, "A bicycle shed is a building, Lincoln Cathedral is a piece of architecture". In current thinking, the division is not too clear. Bernard Rudofsky's famous Architecture Without Architects consolidated a whole range of structures designed by ordinary people into the realm of architecture. Architecture is also the art of designing the human built environment. Buildings, landscaping, and street designs may be used to impart both functional as well as aesthetic character to a project. Siding and roofing materials and colors may be used to enhance or blend buildings with the environment. Building features such as cornices, gables, entrances, window treatments and borders may be used to soften or enhance portions of a building. Landscaping may be used to create privacy and block direct views from or to a site and enhance buildings with colorful plants and trees. Street side features such as decorative lighting, benches, meandering walkways, and bicycle lanes may enhance a site for passersby, pedestrians, and cyclists.

Architectural history

Architecture first evolved out of the dynamics between needs (shelter, security, worship, etc.) and means (available building materials and attendant skills). Prehistoric and primitive architecture constitute this early stage. As humans progressed and knowledge began to be formalised through oral traditions and practices, architecture evolved into a craft. Here there is first a process of trial and error, and later improvisation or replication of a successful trial. What is termed Vernacular architecture continues to be produced in many parts of the world. Vernacular architecture, India]] Early human settlements were essentially rural. As surplus of production began to occur, rural societies transformed into urban ones and cities began to evolve. In many ancient civilisations such as the Egyptians' and Mesopotamians' architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the supernatural. However, the architecture and urbanism of the Classical civilisations such as the Greek and the Roman evolved from more civic ideas and new building types emerged. Architectural styles developed and texts on architecture began to be written. These became canons to be followed in important works, especially religious architecture. Some examples of canons are the works of Vitruvius, the Kaogongji of ancient China and Vaastu Shastra in ancient India. In Europe in the Classical and Medieval periods, buildings were not attributed to specific individual architects who remained anonymous. Guilds were formed by craftsmen to organise their trade. Over time the complexity of buildings and their types increased. General civil construction such as roads and bridges began to be built. Many new building types such as schools, hospitals, and recreational facilities emerged. Islamic architecture has a long and complex history beginning in the 7th century CE. Examples can be found throughout the countries that are, or were, Islamic - from Morocco and Spain to Iran, and Indonesia. Other examples can be found in areas where Muslims are a minority. Islamic architecture includes mosques, madrasas, caravansarais, palaces, and mausolea of this large region. With the Renaissance and its emphasis on the individual and humanity rather than religion, and with all its attendant progress and achievements, a new chapter began. Buildings were ascribed to specific architects - Michaelangelo, Brunelleschi, Leonardo da Vinci - and the cult of the individual had begun. But there was no dividing line between artist, architect and engineer, or any of the related vocations. At this stage, it was still possible for an artist to design a bridge as the level of structural calculations involved were within the scope of the generalist. With the consolidation of knowledge in scientific