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October 30

October 30

October 30 is the 303rd day of the year (304th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 62 days remaining.

Events

- 1270 - The Eighth Crusade and siege of Tunis end by an agreement between Charles I of Sicily (brother to King Louis IX of France, who had died months earlier) and the sultan of Tunis.
- 1340 - Battle of Rio Salado
- 1470 - Henry VI of England returns to the English throne after Earl of Warwick defeats Yorkists in battle.
- 1831 - In Southampton County, Virginia, escaped slave Nat Turner is captured and arrested for leading the bloodiest slave revolt in United States history.
- 1864 - Second war of Schleswig ends: Duke Frederick and the Danish Crown recognize Prussia's and Austria's annexation of Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg.
- 1864 - Helena, Montana is founded after four prospectors discover gold at "Last Chance Gulch."
- 1894 - Domenico Menegatti obtains a patent for a procedure to be applied in producing pandoro industrially.
- 1905 - Tsar Nicholas II of Russia grants Russia's first constitution, creating a legislative assembly.
- 1918 - The Ottoman Empire signs an armistice with the Allies, ending the First World War in the Middle East
- 1920 - The Communist Party of Australia founded in Sydney.
- 1925 - John Logie Baird creates Britain's first television transmitter.
- 1938 - Orson Welles broadcasts his radio play of H. G. Wells's The War of the Worlds, causing a nationwide panic.
- 1941 - World War II: Franklin Delano Roosevelt approves US$1 billion in Lend-Lease aid to the Soviet Union.
- 1944 - Anne Frank is deported from Auschwitz to the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp.
- 1947 - The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which is the foundation of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) is founded.
- 1953 - Cold War: US President Dwight D. Eisenhower formally approves the top secret document National Security Council Paper No. 162/2, which states that the United States' arsenal of nuclear weapons must be maintained and expanded to counter the communist threat.
- 1961 - Nuclear testing: The Soviet Union detonates the hydrogen bomb Tsar Bomba over Novaya Zemlya; at 58 megatons of yield, it is still the largest nuclear device ever detonated. Nikita Kruschev announces that the scientists had planned to make it 100 megatons, but had reduced the yield so as to avoid breaking all the windows in Moscow.
- 1961 - Due to "violations of Lenin's precepts", it is decreed that Josef Stalin's body be removed from its place of honour inside Lenin's tomb and buried near the Kremlin wall with a plain granite marker instead.
- 1965 - Vietnam War: Just miles from Da Nang, United States Marines repel an intense attack by wave after wave of Viet Cong forces, killing 56 guerrillas. Among the dead, a sketch of Marine positions was found on the body of a 13-year-old Vietnamese boy who sold drinks to the Marines the day before.
- 1966 - The Zodiac killer kills his first victim, 18-year old Cheri Jo Bates, in Riverside, California.
- 1968 - The film The Lion in Winter, starring Katharine Hepburn, debuts.
- 1970 - In Vietnam, the worst monsoon to hit the area in six years causes large floods, kills 293, leaves 200,000 homeless and virtually halts the Vietnam War.
- 1972 - US President Richard Nixon approves legislation to increase Social Security spending by US$5.3 billion.
- 1974 - "The Rumble in the Jungle": Muhammad Ali knocks out George Foreman in Kinshasa, Zaire to regain the World Heavyweight Boxing championship.
- 1975 - Prince Juan Carlos becomes Spain's acting head of state, taking over for the country's ailing dictator, Gen. Francisco Franco.
- 1980 - El Salvador and Honduras sign a peace treaty to put the border dispute fought over in 1969's Football War before the International Court of Justice.
- 1983 - The first democratic elections in Argentina after seven years of military rule are held.
- 1987 - In Japan, NEC releases the first 16-bit home entertainment system, the PC-Engine.
- 1988 - Philip Morris buys Kraft Foods for US$13.1 billion.
- 1991 - The Madrid Conference for Middle East peace talks opens.
- 1995 - Quebec sovereignists narrowly lose a referendum for a mandate to negotiate independence from Canada (vote was 50.6% to 49.4%).
- 1997 - British au pair Louise Woodward is found guilty of the baby-shaking death of 8-month-old Matthew Eappen.
- 2001 - George W. Bush throws out the first pitch at Game 3 of the World Series at Yankee Stadium, in what was intended to be a defiant gesture, coming just weeks after the Sept. 11 attacks.
- 2001 - Michael Jordan returns to the National Basketball Association with the Washington Wizards after 3 1/2 years (the Wizards lose 93-91 to the New York Knicks).
- 2002 - British Digital terrestrial television (DTT) Service Freeview starts transmitting throughout parts of the United Kingdom
- 2004 - A 163-metre high radio mast in Peterborough, Cambridgeshire, UK collapses in a fire.
- 2004 - In Punjab, India the expelled BSP leader Satnam Singh Kainth launches Bahujan Samaj Party (Kainth).
- 2005 - The rebuilt Dresden Frauenkirche (destroyed in the firebombing of Dresden during World War II) was reconsecrated, after 13 years of rebuilding.

Births

- 1218 - Emperor Chukyo of Japan (d. 1234)
- 1513 - Jacques Amyot, French writer (d. 1593)
- 1624 - Paul Pellisson, French writer (d. 1693)
- 1735 - John Adams, American revolutionary leader and President of the United States (d. 1826)
- 1751 - Richard Sheridan, Irish playwright (d. 1816)
- 1762 - André Chénier, French writer (d. 1794)
- 1839 - Alfred Sisley, French artist (d. 1899)
- 1844 - Harvey W. Wiley, American chemist (d. 1930)
- 1861 - Antoine Bourdelle, French sculptor (d. 1929)
- 1871 - Paul Valery, French poet (d. 1945)
- 1882 - William Halsey, Jr, American admiral (d. 1959)
- 1882 - Günther von Kluge, German field marshal (d. 1944)
- 1885 - Ezra Pound, American poet (d. 1972)
- 1886 - Zoe Akins, American playwright (d. 1958)
- 1893 - Charles Atlas, Italian-born bodybuilder (d. 1972)
- 1893 - Roland Freisler, German Nazi politician (d. 1945)
- 1895 - Gerhard Domagk, German bacteriologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (declined) (d. 1964)
- 1895 - Dickinson W. Richards, American physician, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1973)
- 1896 - Ruth Gordon, American actress (d. 1985)
- 1900 - Ragnar Granit Finnish neuroscientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1991)
- 1906 - Giuseppe Farina, Italian race car driver (d. 1966)
- 1911 - Ruth Hussey, American actress (d. 2005)
- 1914 - Richard E Holz, American composer
- 1915 - Fred Friendly, American journalist and network executive (d. 1998)
- 1916 - Leon Day, baseball player (d. 1995)
- 1917 - Maurice Trintignant, French race car driver (d. 2005)
- 1928 - Daniel Nathans, American microbiologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1999)
- 1930 - Nestor Almendros, Spanish cinematographer (d. 1992)
- 1932 - Louis Malle, French film director (d. 1995)
- 1934 - Frans Brüggen, Dutch flutist, recorder player, and conductor
- 1935 - Agota Kristof, Hungarian writer
- 1936 - Polina Astakhova, Ukrainian gymnast (d. 2005)
- 1937 - Claude Lelouch, French film director
- 1939 - Leland H. Hartwell, American scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- 1939 - Grace Slick, American singer (Jefferson Airplane)
- 1940 - Ed Lauter, American actor
- 1941 - Theodor W. Hänsch, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1941 - Otis Williams, American singer
- 1945 - Henry Winkler, American actor
- 1951 - Harry Hamlin, American actor
- 1956 - Juliet Stevenson, English actress
- 1958 - Joe Delaney, American football player (d. 1983)
- 1960 - Diego Armando Maradona, Argentine footballer
- 1962 - Courtney Walsh, West Indian cricketer
- 1963 - Kristina Wagner, American actress
- 1964 - Matt Walsh, Actor, Comedian
- 1966 - Scott Innes, American voice actor
- 1967 - Gavin Rossdale, English musician
- 1973 - Adam Copeland, Canadian professional wrestler
- 1973 - Silvia Corzo, Colombian newsreader
- 1978 - Martin Dossett, American football player
- 1979 - Yukie Nakama, Japanese actress

Deaths

- 1459 - Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini, Italian humanist (b. 1380)
- 1522 - Jean Mouton, French composer
- 1553 - Jacob Sturm von Sturmeck, German statesman and reformer (b. 1489)
- 1602 - Jean-Jacques Boissard, French poet (b. 1528)
- 1611 - King Charles IX of Sweden (b. 1550)
- 1626 - Willebrord Snell, Dutch astronomer and mathematician (b. 1580)
- 1632 - Henri II de Montmorency, French naval officer and Governor of Languedoc (b. 1595)
- 1654 - Emperor Go-Komyo of Japan (b. 1633)
- 1680 - Antoinette Bourignon, Flemish mystic (b. 1616)
- 1685 - Michel le Tellier, French statesman (b. 1603)
- 1816 - Frederick I of Württemberg (b. 1754)
- 1842 - Allan Cunningham, Scottish poet and author (b. 1784)
- 1853 - Pietro Raimondi, Italian composer (b. 1786)
- 1883 - Robert Volkmann, German composer (b. 1815)
- 1893 - John Joseph Caldwell Abbott, third Prime Minister of Canada (b. 1821)
- 1910 - Henry Dunant, Swiss founder of the Red Cross, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1828)
- 1912 - James S. Sherman, Vice President of the United States (b. 1855)
- 1915 - Charles Tupper, sixth Prime Minister of Canada (b. 1821)
- 1918 - Egon Schiele, Austrian painter (b. 1890)
- 1968 - Rose Wilder Lane, American journalist and author (b. 1886)
- 1968 - Ramon Novarro, Mexican actor (b. 1899)
- 1969 - Pops Foster, American musician (b. 1892)
- 1975 - Gustav Ludwig Hertz, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1887)
- 1978 - Edgar Bergen, American ventriloquist (b. 1903)
- 1979 - Barnes Wallis, British aeronautical engineer (b. 1887)
- 2000 - Steve Allen, American comedian, author, and composer (b. 1921)
- 2002 - Jam Master Jay, American rapper and musician (Run DMC) (murdered) (b. 1965)
- 2004 - Peggy Ryan, American actress (b. 1924)
- 2005 - Al Lopez, baseball player and manager (b. 1908)
- 2005 - Shamsher Singh Sheri, Indian revolutionary leader (b. 1942)

Holidays and observances

- Calendar of Saints - October 30th is the feast day of the following Roman Catholic Saints:
- Bl. Angelus of Acri
- St. Alfonso Rodríguez
- St. Arilda
- St. Artemas
- St. Dorothy of Montau
- St. Herbert
- Bl. John Slade
- St. Macarius
- St. Marcel
- St. Maximus
- St. Saturninus
- St. Serapion
- St. Talacrian
- St. Theonestus
- St. Zenobius & Zenobia
- Also see October 30 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
- USA - Devil's Night also known as Mischief night in Detroit; National Candy Corn Day

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/30 BBC: On This Day] ---- October 29 - October 31 - November 30 - September 30 - more historical anniversaries ko:10월 30일 ms:30 Oktober ja:10月30日 simple:October 30 th:30 ตุลาคม

October 30

October 30 is the 303rd day of the year (304th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 62 days remaining.

Events

Births

Deaths

Holidays and observances

External links

1270

For broader historical context, see 1270s and 13th century.

Events

13th century

Europe

- December - Crucial aspects of the philosophy of Averroism (itself based on Aristotle's works) are banned by the Catholic church in a condemnation enacted by papal authority at the University of Paris.
- The Summa Theologiae, a work by Thomas Aquinas that is considered within the Roman Catholic Church to be the paramount expression of its theology, is completed (year uncertain).
- Witelo translates Alhazen's 200-year-old treatise on optics, Kitab al-Manazir, from Arabic into Latin, bringing the work to European academic circles for the first time.
- The Sanskrit fables known as the Panchatantra, dating from as early as 200 BCE, are translated into Latin from a Hebrew version by John of Capua.
- Construction of the Old New Synagogue in Prague is completed.
- The cathedral on the Rock of Cashel in Ireland is completed.

Asia

- In Korea, the Sambyeolcho Rebellion begins against the Goryeo Dynasty, a puppet government of the Mongol Empire.
- The ancient city of Ashkelon is captured from the crusader states and utterly destroyed by the Mamluk sultan Baibars, who goes so far as to fill in its important harbor, leaving the site desolate and the city never to be rebuilt.
- The city of Tabriz, in present-day Iran, is made capital of the Mongol Ilkhanate empire (approximate date).
- The independent state of Kutch is founded in present-day India.
- A census of the Chinese city of Hangzhou establishes that some 186,330 families reside within it, not including visitors and soldiers. (Historian Jacques Gernet argues that this means a population of over 1 million inhabitants, making Hangzhou the most populous city in the world.)

Africa

The Eighth Crusade

- Before August - King Louis IX of France launches the Eighth Crusade in an attempt to recapture the crusader states from the Mamluk sultan Baibars; the opening engagement is a siege of Tunis.
- August 25 - King Louis IX of France dies while besieging the city of Tunis, possibly due to poor quality drinking water.
- October 30 - The siege of Tunis and the Eighth Crusade end by an agreement between Charles I of Sicily (Louis IX's brother) and the sultan of Tunis.

Other events in Africa

- Yekuno Amlak overthrows the Ethiopian Zagwe dynasty, claims the throne and establishes the Solomonid dynasty (approximate date).

Births

- March 12 - Charles of Valois, son of Philip III of France (died 1325)
- Jacob ben Asher, Spanish rabbi and religious writer
- Theodore Metochites, Byzantine statesman and author
- Michael of Cesena, Franciscan theologian (died 1342)
- Roger Bigod, 5th Earl of Norfolk (died 1306)
- Marsilius of Padua, Italian scholar (died 1342)
- Aymer de Valence, 2nd Earl of Pembroke (died 1324)
- Cino da Pistoia, Italian poet (died 1336)
- Ma Zhiyuan, Chinese poet

Deaths

- February 23 - Saint Isabel of France, daughter of Louis VIII of France (born 1225)
- July 14 - Boniface of Savoy Archbishop of Canterbury
- August 25 - King Louis IX of France
- August 25 - Alphonso of Brienne
- December 4 - Theobald V of Champagne, King of Navarre
- Philip of Montfort, Lord of Castres
- Béla IV of Hungary (born 1206)
- Mansa Wali Keita, second mansa of the Mali Empire
- Roger Bigod, 4th Earl of Norfolk (born 1212)
- Philip of Montfort, Lord of Tyre
- David VII Ulu, King of Georgia (born 1215)
- Isaac ben Moses of Vienna, Jewish rabbi and scholar (born 1200) Category:1270 ko:1270년

Eighth Crusade

The Eighth Crusade was a crusade launched by Louis IX of France, (who was by now in his mid-fifties) in 1270. The Eighth Crusade is sometimes counted as the Seventh, if the Fifth and Sixth Crusades of Frederick II are counted as a single crusade. The Ninth Crusade is sometimes also counted as part of the Eighth. Louis was disturbed by events in Syria, where the Mamluk sultan Baibars had been attacking the remnant of the Crusader states. Baibars had seized the opportunity after a war pitting the cities of Venice and Genoa against each other (1256-1260) had exhausted the Syrian ports that the two cities controlled. By 1265 Baibars had captured Nazareth, Haifa, Toron, and Arsuf. Hugh III of Cyprus, nominal king of Jerusalem, landed in Acre to defend that city, while Baibars marched as far north as Armenia, which was at that time under Mongol control. These events led to Louis' call for a new crusade in 1267, although there was little support this time; Jean de Joinville, the chronicler who accompanied Louis on the Seventh Crusade, refused to go. Louis was soon convinced by his brother Charles of Anjou to attack Tunis first, which would give them a strong base for attacking Egypt, the focus of Louis' previous crusade as well as the Fifth Crusade before him, both of which had been defeated there. Charles, as King of Naples, also had his own interests in this area of the Mediterranean. The sultan of Tunis also had connections with Christian Spain and was considered a good candidate for conversion. In 1270 Louis sailed from Cagliari in Sicily and landed on the African coast in July, a very unfavourable season for landing. Much of the army became sick due to poor drinking water, and on August 25 Louis himself died from a "flux in the stomach", one day after the arrival of Charles. His dying word was "Jerusalem." Charles proclaimed Louis' son Philip III the new king, but due to his youth Charles became the actual leader of the crusade. Due to further diseases the siege of Tunis was abandoned on October 30 by an agreement with the sultan. In this agreement the Christians gained free trade with Tunis, and residence for monks and priests in the city was guaranteed, so the crusade could be regarded as a partial success. Charles now allied himself with Prince Edward of England, who had arrived in the meantime. When Charles called off the attack on Tunis, Edward continued on to Acre, the last crusader outpost in Syria. His time spent there is often called the Ninth Crusade. Category:Crusades nb:Åttende korstog

Tunis

Tunis (تونس, Tūnis) is the capital of Tunisia, with a population of 699,700 in 2003. Situated at the end of a large gulf (the Gulf of Tunis), linked to it by the Lake of Tunis and a canal to the port of La Goulette (Halq al Wadi), the city extends along the coastal plain and the hills that surround it. From the centre of the city, to the east is the silhouette of the medina and to the north is the suburb of Belvedere. The medina is the centre of the city: a dense agglomeration of alleys and covered passages, full of intense scents and colours, boisterous and active trade, a surfeit of goods on offer ranging from leather to plastic, tin to the finest filigree, tourist souvenirs to the works of tiny crafts-shops. Just through the French Gate, formerly the Sea Gate, begins the modern city, Ville Nouvelle, bisected by the grand avenue Bourguiba, where the colonial-era buildings provide a vivid contrast. The city of Tunis is, above all, the capital where a 10th of the population of the country live and work, and where a large part of business activity is focused, in addition to all of the political and administrative functions. The expansion of the Tunisian economy in the last decades is reflected in the unplanned development of the outer city where one can see clearly the social contradictions and the problems of modern Tunisia.

Geography

Tunis is located in north-eastern Tunisia on the Lake of Tunis, and is connected to the Mediterranean sea's Gulf of Tunis by a canal which terminates at the port of La Goulette / Halq al Wadi. Tunis is located at ().

History

Halq al Wadi

Early History

Tunis is a city with a long history. In the 2nd millennium BCE a town, originally named Tunes, was founded by Libyans and also over time occupied by Berbers or Numidians. In the 9th century BCE, the city was taken over by Phoenicians from Carthage. However, from about 800 BCE the city was dominated by its nearby neighbour, Carthage. In 146 CE, the Romans destroyed Tunis (along with Carthage) but was rebuilt and became an important town under Roman control.

Arab Control

It wasn't until the 7th century, after the final destruction of Carthage, that the city achieved its own importance under the control of Arab Muslims. It was at this time that the medina of Tunis was begun to be built. Many ancient buildings are still standing in the Old City, including the Aghlabid Ez-Zitouna Mosque which was built in the 9th century to celebrate their new capital. For this reason it is now a UNESCO World heritage site. From the 12th century to the 16th century, the old city was controlled by the Almohads and the Hafsids. At the time, it was one of the richest and grandest cities in the Islamic world, with a population of about 100,000.

Turkish rule and piracy

Tunis became the capital of Tunisia under the Hafsid dynasty, and was a leading center of trade with Europe. The Turks took the city in 1534. However, the former Sultan, Mulai-Hassan, fled to the court of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. Charles agreed to reinstate Mulai-Hassan in exchange for an acceptance of Charles's suzerainty by Mulai-Hassan and a navel expedition was dispatched in 1535. This quickly captured Tunis and the resulting protectorate lasted until the Turks retook it in 1574. After 1591, the Turkish governors (Beys) were virtually independent, and the city prospered as a center of piracy and trade. In April 1655 English Admiral Robert Blake was sent to the Mediterranean to extract compensation from states that had been attacking English shipping. Only the Bey of Tunis refused to comply, with the result that Blake's 15 ships attacked the Bey's arsenal at Porto Farina (Ghar el Melh), destroying 9 Algerian ships and 2 shore batteries, the first time in naval warfare that shore batteries had been taken out without landing men ashore.

European colonialism

The French occupied the city from 1881 to 1956. During World War II, Tunis was held by Axis forces from November, 1942, to May, 1943, and was their last base in Africa.

Modern history

The Arab League was headquartered in Tunis from 1979 to 1990. The Palestinian Liberation Organization also had its headquarters in Tunis, from 1982 to 1993. In 1985, the PLO's headquarters was bombed by the Israeli Air Force, killing more than 60 people.

Landmarks

- The Bardo Museum was originally a 13th century Hafsid palace, located in the suburbs of Tunis. It contains a collection of Roman mosaics.
- The ruins of Carthage are nearby, to the northeast
- The medina of Tunis is on the list of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites since 1979
- Some 700 monuments, including palaces, mosques, mausoleums, madrasas and fountains dating from the Almohads and the Hafsids periods

Economy

Products include textiles, carpets, and olive oil. Tourism is an important source of the city's income.

Transportation

Tunis is served by the Tunis-Carthage International Airport.

Miscellaneous topics

Tunis is the site of the University of Tunis.

External links

- [http://wikitravel.org/en/article/Tunis Wikitravel: Tunis] Category:Capitals in Africa Category:Coastal cities Category:Cities in Tunisia Category:World Heritage Sites in Tunisia ja:チュニス simple:Tunis

Louis IX of France

, France]] King Louis IX of France or Saint Louis (April 25, 1214/1215 – August 25, 1270) was King of France from 1226 until his death. Born at Poissy, France, he was a member of the Capetian dynasty and the son of King Louis VIII and Blanche of Castile.

Life

Much of what we know of Louis' life comes from Jean de Joinville's famous biography of Louis, Life of Saint Louis. Joinville was a close friend, confidant, and counselor to the king, and also participated as a witness in the papal inquest into Louis' life that ended with his canonization in 1297 by Pope Boniface VIII. Louis was eleven years old when his father died in 1226. He was crowned king the same year in the cathedral at Reims. Because of Louis' youth, his mother, Blanche of Castile, ruled France as regent until 1234, when Louis was deemed of age to rule himself. She continued as an important counsellor to the king until her death in 1252. On May 27, 1234 Louis married Marguerite de Provence (1221–December 21, 1295), the sister of Eleanor, the wife of Henry III of England. Louis was the elder brother of Charles I of Sicily (1227–1285), whom he created count of Anjou, thus founding the second Angevin dynasty. Louis brought an end to the Albigensian Crusade in 1229 after signing an agreement with Count Raymond VII of Toulouse that cleared his father of wrong-doing. Raymond VI had been suspected of murdering a preacher on a mission to convert the Cathars. Louis's piety and kindness towards the poor were much celebrated. He went on crusade twice, in 1248 (Seventh Crusade) and then in 1270 (Eighth Crusade). Both crusades were total failures. After initial success in his first attempt, Louis's army was met by overwhelming resistance from the Egyptian army and citizens. In 1249, Louis was eventually defeated and taken prisoner in Mansoura, Egypt. Louis and his companions were then released in return for the surrender of the French army and a large ransom. He died near Tunis during the latter expedition on August 25, 1270 traditionally during an outbreak of plague but thought by modern scholars to be dysentery. Some of his entrails were buried directly on the spot in Tunisia, where a Tomb of Saint-Louis can still be visited today, whereas other parts of his entrails were sealed in an urn and placed in the Basilica of Monreale, Palermo, where they still remain. His corpse was taken to the French royal necropolis at Saint-Denis, resting in Lyon on the way. His tomb at Saint-Denis was a magnificent gilt brass monument designed in the late 14th century. It was melted down during the French Wars of Religion, at which time the body of the king disappeared. Only one finger was rescued and is kept at Saint-Denis. Pope Boniface VIII proclaimed the canonization of Louis in 1297; he is the only French monarch ever to be made a saint. Louis IX was succeeded by his son, Philippe III.

Patron of arts and arbiter of Europe

Philippe III Louis' patronage of the arts drove much innovation in Gothic art and architecture, and the style of his court radiated throughout Europe by both the purchase of art objects from Parisian masters for export and by the marriage of the king's many daughters to foreign husbands and their subsequent introduction of Parisian models elsewhere. Louis' personal chapel, the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris, was copied more than once by his descendants elsewhere. Louis most likely ordered the production of the Morgan Bible, a masterpiece of medieval painting. Saint Louis ruled during the so-called "golden century of Saint Louis", when the kingdom of France was at its height in Europe, both politically and economically. The king of France was regarded as a primus inter pares among the kings and rulers of Europe. He commanded the largest army, and ruled the largest and most wealthy kingdom of Europe, a kingdom which was the European center of arts and intellectual thought (La Sorbonne) at the time. For many, King Louis IX embodied the whole of Christendom in his person. His reputation of saintliness and fairness was already well established while he was alive, and on many occasions he was chosen as an arbiter in the quarrels opposing the rulers of Europe. It should be noted that the prestige and respect felt in Europe for King Louis IX was due more to the attraction that his benevolent personality created rather than to military domination. For his contemporaries, he was the quintessential example of the Christian prince.

Religious zeal

This perception of Louis IX as the quintessential Christian prince was reinforced by his religious zeal. Saint Louis was a devout Christian, and he built the Sainte Chapelle ("Holy Chapel"), located within the royal palace complex (now the Paris Hall of Justice), on the Île de la Cité in the center of Paris. The Sainte Chapelle, a perfect example of the Rayonnant style of Gothic architecture, was erected as a shrine for the Crown of Thorns and a fragment of the True Cross, precious relics of the Passion of Jesus. Louis purchased these in 1239–1241 from Emperor Baldwin II of the Latin Empire of Constantinople, for the exorbitant sum of 135,000 livres (the chapel, on the other hand, only cost 60,000 livres to build). This purchase should be understood in the context of extreme religious fervor that existed in Europe in the 13th century. The purchase contributed a lot to reinforce the central position of the king of France in western Christendom, as well as to further increase the renown of Paris, then the largest city of western Europe. It was a time when cities and rulers vied for relics, trying to increase their reputation and fame, and Louis IX had succeeded in securing the most prized of all relics in his capital. The purchase was thus not only an act of devotion, but also a political gesture: the French monarchy was trying to establish the kingdom of France as the "new Jerusalem". Louis IX took very seriously his mission of "lieutenant of God on Earth", with which he had been invested when he had been crowned in Reims. Thus, in order to fulfill his duty, he conducted several crusades, and even though they were unsuccessful, it contributed to the prestige that he enjoyed. Contemporaries would not have understood that the king of France do not lead a crusade to the Holy Land. In the same vein, he also ordered the expulsion of the Jews from France, although the loose control of the central government over the kingdom meant that many Jews actually remained in the provinces. Again, this needs to be understood in the context of the 13th century: the dislike of the Jews was general in Europe, as the Christians held the Jews responsible for the death of Jesus Christ. The decision to expel the Jews was largely welcome in all spheres of society. In all these deeds, Louis IX tried to fulfill the duty of France, which was seen as "the eldest daughter of the Church" (la fille aînée de l'Église), a tradition of protector of the Church going back to the Franks and Charlemagne, who had been crowned in Rome in 800. Indeed, the official Latin title of the kings of France was Rex Francorum, i.e. "king of the Franks", and the kings of France were also known by the title "very Christian king" (Rex Christianissimus). The relationship between France and the papacy was at its peak in the 12th and 13th centuries, and most of the crusades were actually called by the popes from French soil. Eventually, in 1309, the popes even left Rome and relocated to the French city of Avignon.

Veneration as a saint

Avignon Louis IX is often considered the model of the ideal Christian monarch. Because of the aura of holiness attached to the memory of Louis IX, many Kings of France were called Louis, especially in the Bourbon dynasty (Louis XIII to Louis XVIII).

Children

#Blanche (1240–April 29, 1243) #Isabelle (March 2, 1241–January 28, 1271), married Theobald V of Champagne #Louis (February 25, 1244–January 1260) #Philippe III (May 1, 1245–October 5, 1285) #Jean (born and died in 1248) #Jean Tristan (1250–August 3, 1270) #Pierre (1251–1284) #Blanche (1253–1323), married Ferdinand de la Cerda #Marguerite (1254–1271), married John I, Duke of Brabant #Robert, Count of Clermont (1256–February 7, 1317). He was the ancestor of King Henry IV of France. #Agnes of France (c. 1260–December 19, 1327), married Robert II, Duke of Burgundy

Places named after Saint Louis

The cities of Saint Louis, Missouri, Saint-Louis du Sénégal in Senegal, Saint-Louis in Alsace, as well as Lac Saint-Louis in Quebec, and the Mission San Luis Rey de Francia in California are among the many places named after the king. The Cathedral Saint-Louis in Versailles and the French royal Order of Saint Louis (1693-1790 and 1814-1830) were also created after the king.

External links

[http://xenophongroup.com/montjoie/taillebr.htm Site about The Saintonge War between Louis IX of France and Henry III of England]. [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/makrisi.html Account of the first Crusade of Saint Louis from the perspective of the Arabs.]. [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1249sixthcde-let.html A letter from Guy, a knight, concerning the capture of Damietta on the sixth Crusade with a speech delivered by Saint Louis to his men]. [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/WedLord.html Etext full version of the Memoirs of the Lord of Joinville, a biography of Saint Louis written by one of his knights]

Bibliography

Joinville, Jean de, The History of St. Louis (Trans. Joan Evans).
Category:1214 births Category:1215 births Category:1270 deaths Louis 09 Category:Saints Category:Crusades ja:ルイ9世 (フランス王)

Sultan

A sultan (Arabic: سلطان) is an Islamic title, with several historical meanings.

Muslim monarch ruling under the terms of shariah

The title carries moral weight and religious authority, as the ruler's role was defined in the Qur'an. The sultan however was not a religious teacher himself. In the Byzantine Empire and the traditional spheres of Eastern Orthodox Christianity, a comparable unity of church and state in the person of the ruler is termed Caesaropapism. The last Western ruler with comparable authority was Nicholas II, the last Tsar of Russia, though formally (if not in practice) the British monarch represents a similar union of church and state, being both the head of state and the Supreme Governor of the Church of England; in practice, the Queen is merely the titular leader of church and state; this status is also under question as Charles, Prince of Wales has indicated he intends to rule as 'defender of the faiths' rather than 'defender of the faith'. The first to carry the title of 'Sultan' was the Turkmen chief Mahmud of Ghazni (ruled 998 - 1030). Later, 'Sultan' became the usual title of rulers of Seljuk and Ottoman Turks and Ayyubid and Mamluk rulers in Egypt. The spiritual validation of the title was well illustrated by the fact that it was the shadow caliph in Cairo that bestowed the title "sultan" on Murad I, the third ruler of the Ottoman Empire in 1383. The earlier leaders had been beys. At later stages, lesser rulers assumed the styling "sultan", as was the case for the earlier leaders of today's royal family of Morocco. Today, only the Sultan of Oman, the Sultan of Brunei, and some titular sultans in the southern Philippines, Java, and in the former Malay States which are now part of Malaysia still use the title. The sultan's domain is properly called a sultanate. A feminine form, used by Westerners, is Sultana or Sultanah; the very styling misconstrues the roles of wives of sultans. In a similar usage, the wife of a German Field-Marshal might be styled Feldmarschallin. Among those modern hereditary rulers who wish to emphasize their secular authority under the rule of law, the term is gradually being replaced by 'king'.

Princely and aristocratic titles

In the Ottoman dynastic system, every close relative, male and female, of the ruling Padishah (in the west also known as Great Sultan), was styled Sultan, either before or after the name, so equivalent to a western prince of the blood. In certain muslim states, Sultan was also an aristocratic title, as in the Tartar Astrakhan Khanate

Military rank

In a number of post-caliphal states under Mongol of Turkic rule, there was a feudal type of military hierarchy, often decimal (mainly in larger empires), using originally princely titles (Khan, Malik, Amir) as mere rank denominations. In the Persian empire, the rank of Sultan was roughly equivalent to a western Captain, socially in the fifth rank class, styled 'Ali Jah

Former sultans and sultanates

Middle East & Central Asia

- Ghaznavid Sultanate
- Sultans of Great Seljuk
- Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm
- Sultans of the Ottoman Empire, the Osmanli
- Ayyubid Sultans of Damascus
- Ayyubid Sultans of Egypt
- Mamluk Sultans of Egypt
- Qu'aiti and Kathiri sultans in Hadhramaut (Yemen)
- Sultans of Nejd in Arabia
- Sultans of the Hejaz in Arabia

Hami

This was the authentical style, commonly rendered as sultan, of the Islmaic monarchs of the ruling house of Oman, in both its realms:
- Oman — Sultan of Oman, on the southern coast of the Arabian peninsula, still an independent sultanate, since 1784, two years before the imamate lost temporal power in 1786 (assumed the formal style of Sultan in 1861)
- Sultanate of Zanzibar two incumbents (from the Omani dynasty) since the de faco separation from Oman in 1806, the last assumed the style Sultan in 1861 at the formal separation under British auspices; since 1964 union with Tanganyika part of Tanzania)

Contemporary sultanates

- Brunei
- Indonesia — Sultan of Yogyakarta is governor of that province
- Malaysia
- Note: Sultan is the title of seven (Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, Pahang, Perak, Selangor and Terengganu) of the nine rulers of the Malay states. The head of state for all Malaysia, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, is selected from among the Rulers, but is usually styled "King" in foreign countries. Political power, however, lies with Prime Minister. See also: Malay titles
- Philippines — Sultanate of Sulu

Sources and References

- [http://www.4dw.net/royalark/Persia/persia-glossary.htm| RoyalArk - here the Persian Empire]
- [ WorldStatesmen] Category:Arabic words Category:Heads of state Category:Islam Category:Military ranks Category:Monarchy Category:Noble titles Category:Positions of authority Category:Titles ko:술탄 ja:スルターン

Battle of Rio Salado

Battle of Río Salado (October 30, 1340), was a united victory of King Afonso IV of Portugal of Portugal and King Alfonso XI of Castile of Castille over Muslim ruler Abu al-Hasan 'Ali of Marinid dynasty and Nasrid ruler Yusuf I. This battle was a final attempt of Marinids to invade the Iberian Peninsula. The Marinids had mobilised a vast army and, after crossing the Strait of Gibraltar and defeating a Christian fleet at Gibraltar, then proceeded inland to the Salado River near Seville, where they met the Christians. The Marinids suffered a disastrous defeat and moved back to Africa. Category:1340 Río Salado 1340 Río Salado 1340 Category:Reconquista

Henry VI of England

Henry VI (December 6, 1421 – May 21/22, 1471) was King of England from 1422 to 1461 (though with a Regent until 1437) and then from 1470 to 1471.

Childhood

Henry was the only child and heir of King Henry V of England, and therefore great things were expected of him from birth. He was born on December 6, 1421 at Windsor, but his father died when he was only a few months old. His mother, Catherine of Valois, was the daughter of the French King and only twenty years old. Because of general suspicion of her origin, she was prevented from having much to do with her son's upbringing. During Henry's infancy, England was ruled by a regency government which came to be dominated by Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, Henry IV's youngest son, and Bishop Henry Beaufort (Cardinal Beaufort from 1426) who was Henry V's half-uncle. Henry IV's elder surviving son, John, Duke of Bedford, was the senior regent, having been appointed Regent of France (in charge of running the ongoing war) as well as replacing Gloucester as Regent of England whenever Bedford was personally in the country. From 1428, Henry's tutor was the Earl of Warwick, whose father had been instrumental in the opposition to Richard II's reign. Henry was also influenced by Henry Beaufort, and later William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk. Henry came to favour a policy of peace in France. Henry's half-brothers, Edmund and Jasper, the sons of his mother'

October 30

Events

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Deaths

Holidays and observances

External links

October 30

Events

Births

Deaths

Holidays and observances

External links

1270

Events

Europe

Asia

Africa

The Eighth Crusade

Other events in Africa

Births

Deaths

Eighth Crusade

Tunis

Geography

History

Early History

Arab Control

Turkish rule and piracy

European colonialism

Modern history

Landmarks

Economy

Transportation

Miscellaneous topics

See also

External links

Louis IX of France

Life

Patron of arts and arbiter of Europe

Religious zeal

Veneration as a saint

Children

Places named after Saint Louis

External links

Bibliography

Sultan

Muslim monarch ruling under the terms of shariah

Princely and aristocratic titles

Military rank

Former sultans and sultanates

Middle East & Central Asia

Hami

East Africa

Southeast Asia

India

Contemporary sultanates

See also

Sources and References

Battle of Rio Salado

Henry VI of England

Childhood