Many of the world's oldest universities are located in Italy, in particular the University of Bologna (1088). Universities are supported by state funding so that students do not have to pay for tuition. Most Italian students frequent a local university, and will typically remain living with their parents while attending University.
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The University of Bologna (Università di Bologna, UNIBO) is the university of Bologna, in Italy. Its new name, since 2000, is Alma mater studiorum (Latin for "fostering mother of studies"), to remember it as the first university in Europe. The university received a charter from Frederick I Barbarossa in 1158, but in the 19th century, a committee of historians led by Giosuè Carducci traced the birth of the University back to 1088. The University celebrated its 900th anniversary in 1988, making it arguably the longest-lived university in the Western world. The University of Bologna is historically notable for its teaching of canon and civil law.
In Italy, a state-wide Education System has existed since 1859, when the Legge Casati (Casati Act) made the responsible for the forthcoming Italian state (Italian unification happened in 1861) with the construction of state-funded boarding schools to be funded where existing provision was inadequate (notably in the south of Italy).
Public school was meant to be free of charge and compulsory, but until 1877, illiteracy rates in Italy remained very high (close to 77%). Also, although school was compulsory, there were no sanctions made against parents that failed to send their children to school, and attending courses was not obligatory.
In 1877, the Legge Coppino (Coppino Act) set the compulsory school age to 9 years, but still there were no sanctions against parents that failed to send their children to school.
In 1904, the Legge Orlando (Orlando Act) raised the school leaving age to 12, and funded municipalities that could not afford the costruction of public schools. Also this act did not have the desidered effect of decreasing illiteracy levels.
From 1911, with the Legge Credaro (Credaro Act) the Italian government took the responsibility of providing elementary education to citizens (until 1911, the municipalities were responsible for building schools and providing free education)
From the Gentile Act to the present day
In 1923, the Legge Gentile (Gentile Act) set the rules of Italian education, which has not been changed for a long time.
Among the changes introduced with this Act, there is the compulsory teaching of the Catholic religion; the raising of the school leaving age to 14 years, the creation of a specific institute for the education of elementary school teachers and the instituction of sanctions, fines and strict controls to force parents to send their children to school.
The age of compulsory school leaving was raised to 16 and then to 18 in more recent years, and since 1923 there have been a number of changes, both minor and major, in secondary education, but the basic structure of Italian education has not been changed since then.
It is worth mentioning that until 1997, if a high school student failed to obtain a passing grade in each subject, he had to undertake an exam at the beginning of September (the academic year usually begins around September 15th), and to repeat the academic year if they fail this exam. But from 1997 to the present day, a student may move up to the next year of secondary school, even if he didn't get a passing grade in some subjects (usually up to three subjects if the grades aren't terrible, i.e. a 5 (the passing grade is a 6.0)
Present Situation
Nowadays, there are two stages of education in Italy: primary and secondary education. Secondary education (Scuole Medie) is further divided in two: "Medie Inferiori", that correspond to the Middle School, and "Medie Superiori", that correspond to Secundary School.
Primary school can be preceded by 3 years of kindergarten, although kindergartens works like in Germany and attending them isn't compulsory.
Primary school lasts 5 years, and there is no exam; the lower tier of "Scuole Medie" corresponds to Middle School, lasts 3 years and has an exam at the end of the third year, and "Scuole Superiori" lasts another 5 year, with an exam at the end of the last year. So, a typical Italian student is 19 when he can move to the university, while in the UK and other countries is 18.
Education until the middle school is the very same for everyone: although one can go to a private or to a state-funded school, the subject are the same, except for the special school (i.e. for the blinds, hearing-impaired, etc...)
When it comes to secundary school, the situation is different: there are a lot of different schools, differenciated by subjects and activities. The main division is between "Liceo", "Istituto tecnico" and "Istituto Professionale".
The "Liceo" has been first created by Gentile with law, and in 1923 indicated a specific type of secundary school, but now it rather indicates a class of secundary school that are more oriented towards humanistic subjects: the "Liceo Classico" features Latin and Greek as its most important subjects; in the "Liceo Scientifico" Latin is taught, but there are also some scientific topics, as chemistry or physics. the "Liceo Linguistico" is oriented towards modern languages, and so the most important subjects are usually chosen between English, French, Spanish and German. The last important Liceo is the "Liceo Artistico", that put a stress upon the study of art, and - making - art too.
The "Istituto Tecnico", called in Italian ITIS, is more related to technical subjects, such chemistry, aeronautics, business administration, informatics, etc...
The "Istituto Professionale" is a form of secundary education very oriented toward some job, and is even more specific than the "Istituto tecnico", while the "Liceo", although can oriented towards humanities or languages or science, is a very generic school, covering a broad range of subjects.
Costs
State schools have an income-based fee, but are largely funded by the state. A typical year's fee for high school is around 300 euros, and for university can reach 1400 euros if the student still lives with his family, although all levels of education are free if the family doesn't earn a certain income.
Private schools, i.e. schools run by religious organizations, have much higher fees, and there isn't a fixed upper limit.
School Years
- Primary Education
- Scuola elementare (Primary School)
- Year 1, age 6 to 7
- Year 2, age 7 to 8
- Year 3, age 8 to 9
- Year 4, age 9 to 10
- Year 5, age 10 to 11 (there is no longer an exam at this point)
- Secondary Education
- Scuola Media (Middle School)
- Year 1, age 11 to 12
- Year 2, age 12 to 13
- Year 3, age 13 to 14 (Licenza di Scuola Media)
- Scuola superiore (Secondary School)
- Year 1, age 14 to 15
- Year 2, age 15 to 16
- Year 3, age 16 to 17
- Year 4, age 17 to 18
- Year 5, age 18 to 19 (Licenza di scuola superiore, former Maturità)
External links
- [http://www.istruzione.it Italian Ministry of Education and Research]
Because of the above definition, the oldest universities in the world were all European, as the awarding of academic degrees was not a custom of older institutions of learning in Asia and Africa. However, institutions of higher learning considerably older than the most ancient European universities existed in countries such as China, Egypt and India.
The Academy, founded in 387 BC by the Greek philosopherPlato in the grove of Academos near Athens, taught its students philosophy, mathematics, and gymnastics, and is sometimes considered a forerunner of modern European universities. Other Greek cities with notable educational institutions include Kos (the home of Hippocrates), which had a medical school, and Rhodes, which had philosophical schools. Another famous classical university was the Museum and Library of Alexandria.
About a thousand years after Plato, institutions bearing a resemblance to the modern university existed in Persia and the Islamic world, notably the Academy of Gundishapur and later also al-Azhar University in Cairo.
In Asia, there were a number of institutions of higher learning that vaguely resembled universities in the Western sense of the word. In general, these are of considerable antiquity, predating western institutions of higher learning by centuries. In China, it's recorded that the education system had been established during the Yu period (2257 BC - 2208 BC) and the imperial central academy was named Shangyang (Shang means higher and Yang means school) at the time. The higher learning institution - imperial central academy, was called Piyong in Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC - 249 BC), Taixue in Han Dynasty (202 - 220) and Guozijian in Sui dynasty. For example, Nanjing University traces its source back to the imperial central academy at Nanking founded in 258 by the Kingdom of Wu. The early Chinese state depended upon literate, educated officials for operation of the empire, and an imperial examination was established in the Sui Dynasty (581 -618) for evaluating and selecting officials from the general populace. The ancient cities of Nalanda, Vikramasila, Kanchipura and Takshasila were greatly reputed centres of learning in the east, with students from all over Asia. In particular, Nalanda was a famous center of Buddhist scholarship, and as such it attracted a vast number of Buddhist scholars from China, central Asia and Southeast Asia.
In the Carolingian period, a famous academy was created by Charlemagne for the purpose of educating the children of aristocrats to help train the professionals needed to run an empire. It was a foreshadow of the rise of the University in the 11th century.
The first European medieval university was the University of Magnaura in Constantinople
(now Istanbul, Turkey), founded in 849 by the emperor Bardas, followed by the University of Salerno (9th century)University of Bologna (1088) in Bologna, Italy, and the University of Paris (c. 1100) in Paris, France. Many of the medieval universities in Western Europe were born under the aegis of the Catholic Church, usually as cathedral schools or by papal bull as Studia Generali. In the early medieval period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools, usually when these schools were deemed to have become primarly sites of higher education. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries.
In Europe, young men proceeded to the university when they had completed the study of the trivium–the preparatory arts of grammar, rhetoric, and logic–and the quadrivium: arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. (See degrees of Oxford University for the history of how the trivium and quadrivium developed in relation to degrees, especially in anglophone universities).
Universities are generally established by statute or charter. In the United Kingdom, for instance, a university is instituted by Act of Parliament or Royal Charter; in either case generally with the approval of Privy Council, and only such recognized bodies can award degrees of any kind.
Universities around the world
The funding and organisation of Universities is very different in different countries around the world. In some countries Universities are predominantly funded by the state, while in others funding may come from donors or from fees which students attending the University must pay. In some countries the vast majority of students attend University in their local town, while in other countries Universities attract students from all over the world, and may provide University accommodation for their students.
Universities and student life in different countries
Unlike community colleges, enrollment at a university is generally not available to all. However, admission systems vary widely around the world, as discussed in the article college admissions.
Colloquial usage
Colloquially, the term university is used around the world for a phase in one's life: "when I was at university…"; in the United States, college is often used: "when I was in college…". See college, §3, for further discussion. In the United Kingdom and Australia "University" is often contracted to simply "Uni".
The usual practice in the United States today is to call an institution made up of several faculties and granting a range of higher degrees a "university" while a smaller institution only granting bachelor's or associate's degrees is called a "college". (See liberal arts colleges, community college). Nevertheless, a few of America's oldest and most prestigious universities, such as Boston College, Dartmouth College and the College of William and Mary, have retained the term "college" in their names for historical reasons though they offer a wide range of higher degrees.
Several of the worlds oldest universities are located in Spain. Universities are supported by state funding so that students do not have to pay for tuition. Most Spanish students frequent a local university, and will typically remain living with their parents while attending University.
Universities in the US are generally either state funded or privately funded. At privately funded Universities students are generally expected to pay substantial fees for their education. Eight prestigious private US universities are members of the Ivy League of Universities. In the US, universities are usually treated by the law as a corporation like any other, although many states impose special responsibilities to safeguard the welfare of a university's students. Because the U.S. federal government does not directly organize or regulate universities, unofficial but formalized systems of accreditation have been developed by regional networks of academic institutions.
In the late 19th century, the U.S. Congress encouraged the creation of many land-grant universities. In the last decades of the 20th century, a number of "mega-universities" have been created, teaching with distance learning techniques.
The vast majority of American private and public universities are non-profit (meaning that excess tuition is put into providing more and better services), but starting in the 1970s, many for-profit colleges and universities were founded to take advantage of changes in the federal student assistance programs.
Education
See also Education in the United States
Undergraduate degrees at US universities are usually four years long. The four undergraduate grades are commonly called freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior years (alternately called first year, second year, etc.). Students traditionally apply to receive admission into college, with varying difficulties of entrance. Schools differ in their competitiveness and reputation; generally, public schools are viewed as more lenient and less prestigious than the more expensive private schools. Admissions criteria involve test scores (like the SAT and ACT) and class ranking as well as extracurricular activities performed prior to the application date. Also, many colleges consider the rigor of previous courses taken along with the grades earned. Certain test scores, class rank, or other numerical factors hardly ever have absolute, required levels, but often have a threshold below which admission is unlikely.
Once admitted, students engage in undergraduate study, which consists of satisfying university and class requirements to achieve a bachelor's degree. The most common method consists of four years of study leading to a Bachelor of Arts (BA), a Bachelor of Science (BS) degree, or sometimes (but very rarely) another bachelor's degree such as Bachelor of Fine Arts (BFA). Some students choose to attend a "community college" for two years prior to further study at another college or university. A community college is run by the local municipality, usually the county. Though rarely handing out actual degrees, community colleges may award an Associate of Arts (AA) degree after two years. Those seeking to continue their education may transfer to a four-year college or university (after applying through a similar admissions process as those applying directly to the four-year institution, see articulation). Some community colleges have automatic enrollment agreements with a local four-year college, where the community college provides the first two years of study and the university provides the remaining years of study, sometimes all on one campus.
University life
Many US Universities provide rented accommodation (typically rooms or dormatories in single or both-sex buildings, but rarely placing members of the oposite sex in the same room) with the majority of students living away from their parental homes, in marked contrast to Universities in Italy and Spain. This causes the social life of many students to be centred around the University.
Length
An American University typically grants a degree after four years of study, though graduating in three years or requiring five based on individual performance is not uncommon. By contrast, many modern European universities require only three years of study before a bachelor degree is granted.
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