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Hippocratic Bench

Hippocratic bench

The Hypocratic bench or scamnum was a device invented by Hippocrates (c. 460 BC–380 BC) which used tension to aid in setting bones. It is a forerunner of the traction devices used in modern orthopedics, as well as of the rack, an instrument of torture. The patient would lie on a bench, at an adjustable angle, and ropes would be tied around his arms, waist, legs or feet, depending on the treatment needed. Winches would then be used to pull the ropes apart, correcting curvature in the spine or separating an overlapping fracture.

References

- [http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Hippocrates.htm]
- [http://www.iso-trac.com/hipandme.htm]
- "What the Ancients Did for Us", BBC televion programme aired on April 6, 2005 Category:Inventions

Hippocrates

Hippocrates of Kos (c. 460 BC–c. 380 BC) was an ancient Greek physician. He has been called "the father of medicine", and is commonly regarded as one of the most outstanding figures in medicine of all time. He was a physician trained at the Dream temple of Kos, and may have been a pupil of Herodicus. Writings attributed to him (Corpus hippocraticum, or "Hippocratic writings") rejected the superstition and magic of primitive "medicine" and laid the foundations of medicine as a branch of science. Little is actually known about Hippocrates's personal life, but some of his medical achievements were documented by such people as Plato and Aristotle.

Writings

Aristotle The Hippocratic writings introduced patient confidentiality, a practice which is still in use today. This was described under the Hippocratic Oath and other treatises. Hippocrates recommended that physicians record their findings and their medicinal methods, so that these records may be passed down and employed by other physicians. Other Hippocratic writings associated personality traits with the relative abundance of the four humours in the body: phlegm, yellow bile, black bile, and blood, and was a major influence on Galen and later on medieval medicine. The Hippocratic Corpus is a collection of about sixty treatises, most written between 430 BC and AD 200. They are actually a group of texts written by several different people holding several different viewpoints erroneously grouped under the name of Hippocrates, perhaps at the Library of Alexandria. None of the texts included in the Corpus can be considered to have been written by Hippocrates himself, and one of them at least was written by his son-in-law Polybus. The best known of the Hippocratic writings is the Hippocratic Oath; however, this text was most likely not written by Hippocrates himself. A famous, time-honoured medical rule ascribed to Hippocrates is Primum non nocere ("first, do no harm"); another one is Ars longa, vita brevis ("art is long, and life short").

Works

Of these works, none can be demonstrably credited to Hippocrates, but they are considered to form the Corpus Hippocraticum:
- Aphorisms
- Instruments Of Reduction
- Of The Epidemics
- On Airs, Waters, And Places
- On Ancient Medicine
- On Fistulae
- On Fractures
- On Hemorrhoids
- On Injuries Of The Head
- On Regimen In Acute Diseases
- On The Articulations
- On The Sacred Disease
- On The Surgery
- On Ulcers
- The Book Of Prognostics
- The Law
- The Oath

The "portrait" of Hippocrates

The purely conventional iconography of Greek poets and philosophers were set in the "portrait" busts, (illustration, above right), produced in series to decorate the villas of the Roman cultured class. The changing careers of these idealized "character" images have been studied by Paul Zanker, The Mask of Socrates: The Image of the Intellectual in Antiquity, translated by Alan Shapiro. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996. [ ISBN 0-520-20105-1]. See [http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr/1996/96.08.04.html review in Bryn Mawr Classical Review].

External links

- [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/aut/hippocrates.html Online version of works]]
- [http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/browse-Hippocrates.html Translations of Hippocratic texts in English]
- [http://194.254.96.6/FMPro?-DB=livanc.fp3&-Format=livanc-rech.htm&cote=
- &-max=1000&-Find Texts in Greek]
- Aphorisms available at [http://sources.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphorisms WikiSource]
- [http://www.healthvoices.com/blog/hippocrates/2005/10/24/what_would_hippocrates_do What Would Hippocrates Do?] Category:460 BC births Category:380 BC deaths Category:Ancient Greeks Category:Classical Humanists Category:History of ancient medicine ja:ヒポクラテス simple:Hippocrates

380 BC

Centuries: 5th century BC - 4th century BC - 3rd century BC Decades: 430s BC 420s BC 410s BC 400s BC 390s BC - 380s BC - 370s BC 360s BC 350s BC 340s BC 330s BC 385 BC 384 BC 383 BC 382 BC 381 BC 380 BC 379 BC 378 BC 377 BC 376 BC 375 BC ----

Events

- Nectanebo I deposes Nefaarud II to become king in Egypt and establishes the 30th Dynasty. When it comes to an end in 343 BC, it will be the last native house to rule.
- Cleombrotus I succeeds his brother Agesipolis I as king of Sparta.

Births

- King Darius III of Persia (d. 330 BC) (approximate date).

Deaths

- Agesipolis I, king of Sparta
- Aristophanes, Greek dramatist
- Philoxenus of Cythera, Greek dithyrambic poet.
- Hakor, king of the Twenty-ninth dynasty of Egypt
- Nefaarud II, son of Hakor and last king of the Twenty-ninth dynasty Category:380s BC

Tension

Tension may mean:
- In physics, tension is a force on a body directed to produce strain (extension); it can be considered to be negative compression. It is measured in according units (newton, dynes, pounds-force, etc). Tension is the dominant static force acting on such objects as a vibrating string or a stretched rubber band. :Hooke's law states the relation between the stress on an object and the resultant increase in its length. The modulus of elasticity of a spring or elastic string can be used to calculate the force it exerts under a specific extension.
- The word 'tension' is also sometimes used to refer to electrical voltage; this is the usage in the term high-tension line.
- Colloquially, 'tension' is used to refer to physiological or mental stress.
- In music tension is the perceived need for relaxation or release (Sturm und Drang) created by a listener's expectations as well as dissonance, repetition, tempo, a gradual rise in pitch, and other factors.
- In phonetics, tenseness describes a certain sound quality.

Traction

Traction could refer to:
- traction: the mechanical force used to achieve motion.
- traction: in orthopaedic medicine, the set of mechanisms for straightening broken bones or relieving pressure on the skeletal system.

Orthopedics

Orthopaedic surgery or orthopaedics is the branch of surgery concerned with acute, chronic, traumatic, and recurrent injuries and other disorders of the musculoskeletal system, its muscular and bone parts. Apart from the mechanical considerations, it also is concerned with the pathology, genetics, intrinsic, extrinsic, and biomechanical factors involved.

Qualifications

Orthopaedic surgeons are M.D.s in the USA and Canada and MBBSs in the United Kingdom, who have also taken five to seven years of advanced post-graduate training. In the United States an Orthopaedic Residency is an extremely competitive match and consists of an internship year in general surgery followed by four years of orthopaedic surgery training. After completion of residency in the U.S. or after obtaining a qualification such as Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons (UK) the Orthopaedic Surgeon may start practice or may undergo additional fellowship training in any of several sub-specialty areas, such as sports medicine, traumatology, reconstructive surgery, hand surgery, foot & ankle surgery, spine surgery, pediatric orthopaedics, or orthopaedic oncology. In India, they are either D'Ortho, MS(Ortho) or DNB(Ortho) and obtain their degrees following two to three years of post-graduate training. Many orthopaedic surgeons from developing countries obtain qualifications in Europe or North America. Prior to the 1960s most fractures were treated by general surgeons but since then orthopaedic surgery has developed into a specialty covering reconstruction and trauma in the musculoskeletal system.

Field of work

Orthopaedic surgeons treat patients using surgical and non-surgical methods to correct musculoskeletal problems. Orthopaedic surgeons work closely with many allied health professionals, such as athletic trainers, physical therapists, occupational therapists, physical medicine, rehabilitation physcians, and other physicians in related fields in the treatment of patients.

History

Jean-Andre Venel established the first orthopaedic institute in 1780, which was the first hospital dedicated to the treatment of children's skeletal deformities. He is considered by some to be the father of orthopaedics or first true orthopaedist in consideraton of the establishment of his hospital and for his published methods. Antonius Mathysen, a Dutch military surgeon, invented the plaster of Paris cast in 1851. Many developments in orthopaedic surgery resulted from experiences during war time. On the battlefields of the Middle Ages the injured were treated with bandages soaked in horses' blood which dried to form a stiff, but insanitary, splint. Traction and splinting developed during World War I. The use of intramedullary rods to treat fractures of the femur and tibia was pioneered by Dr. Kunchner of Germany. This made a noticeable difference to the speed of recovery of injured German soldiers during World War II and led to more widespread adoption of intramedullary fixation of fractures in the rest of the world. However, traction was the standard method of treating thighbone fractures until the late 1970's when the Seattle Harborview group popularized intramedullary fixation without opening up the fracture. External fixation of fractures was refined by American surgeons during the Vietnam War but a major contribution was made by Grigor Ilizarov in the USSR. He was sent, without much orthopaedic training, to look after injured Russian soldiers in Siberia in the 1950's. With no equipment he was confronted with crippling conditions of unhealed, infected and malaligned fractures. With the help of the local bicycle shop he devised ring external fixators tensioned like the spokes of a bicycle. With this equipment he achieved healing, realignment and lengthening to a degree unheard of elsewhere. Toronto, Canada, was an early center of excellence in orthopedic surgery, renowned for training and creative development since orthopedics was defined as a distinct surgical specialty by the pioneer surgeon Robert I. Harris in the 1950s. Generations of orthopaedic surgeons graduating from the University of Toronto program since have contributed to many of the important achievements in orthopedics that have improved the lives of people with bone and joint injuries and diseases. One eminent example is the work of David L. MacIntosh, who pioneered the first successful surgery for the management of the torn anterior cruciate ligament of the knee. This common and serious injury in skiers, field athletes, and dancers invariably had brought an end to their pursuits due to permanent joint instability. Working especially with injured football players in his role as sports surgeon for the University of Toronto, he devised a way to re-route viable ligament from adjacent structures to preserve the strong and complex mechanics of the knee joint, and restore stability throughout its range of motion, conferring a fully functional joint. This, for the first time in history, reliably could permit the athlete to return to the demands of (even professional) sport or dance after a period of healing. The two major variants of this repair that MacIntosh developed in the 1960s and 1970s for the torn anterior cruciate ligament still are the operations of choice performed today. Although there were many precursors, the modern total hip replacement is associated with Sir John Charnley in England (1960s). He found that joint surfaces could be replaced by metal or high density polyethylene implants cemented to the bone with Methyl Methacrylate cement. Since Charnley's time there has been continuous improvements in the design and technique of joint replacement (arthroplasty) with many contributors, including W.H.Harris, the son of R.I.Harris, whose team at Harvard pioneered uncemented arthroplasty techniques with the bone bonding directly to the implant. Knee replacements using similar technology were started by McIntosh in rheumatoid arthritis patients and later by Gunston and Marmor for osteoarthritis in the 1970's. The modern condylar total-knee replacement was developed by Dr. John Insall and Dr. Chitranjan Ranawat in New York. Uni-compartment knee replacement, in which only one compartment of an arthritic knee is replaced, is a smaller operation and has become popular recently. Joint replacements are now available for many other joints notably shoulder, elbow, wrist and ankle. The trend now is to minimally invasive surgery in all forms of orthopaedics. Experimental surgeons are applying the technique to the spine, for slipped disks, and to hand and foot pain problems. Joint replacement surgery (reconstructive surgery) has made an enormous difference to the quality of life for sufferers from joint pain and arthritis. Some children develop curvature of the spine (scoliosis). If untreated this may progress and result in the "humpback" deformity which leads to lung problems and early death. Scoliosis surgery was revolutionized by Dr. Harrington's introduction of hook rods, which could maintain the straightening of the spine long enough for a bone fusion to develop. Modern techniques and implants are different but the principle remains the same. Particularly important for injured athletes was the use of arthroscopic tools by Dr. Watanabe of Japan, to perform minimally invasive cartilage surgery and re-constructions of torn ligaments. This advance helped ligament repair patients recover from the surgery in a few hours as day-surgery instead requiring hospitalization, as was the case with open-joint surgery. The commonest operation performed by most orthopaedic surgeons is meniscectomy, or removal of a torn cartilage. In most cases this is done using arthroscopy. Children have special problems with musculoskeletal conditions and have been a focus of Orthopaedics since Hippocrates. Orthopaedic surgeons treat crippling conditions such as club foot and congenital hip dislocation in infants as well as infections in bones and joints in children of all ages. Broken bones are a special problem in children because they are still growing. The techniques for treating adult fractures have to be modified in children. Although orthopaedic surgery is remarkably successful in treating pain and restoring function it causes problems in a small proportion of patients. No branch of medicine is exempt from complication (medicine). Infection of bone after surgery and the development of blood clots DVT in limbs injured or operated on, are common enough to be the focus of much interest and research. The reasons (indications) for orthopaedic surgery always have to be carefully considered. An informed appreciation of the risks and benefits of the proposed treatment is essential.

Terminology

Nicholas Andry coined the word "orthopaedics", derived from Greek words for "correct" or "straight" ("orthos") and "child" ("paidion"), in 1741, when at the age of 81 he published Orthopaedia: or the Art of Correcting and Preventing Deformities in Children.

External links

- [http://www.worldortho.com/history.html The History of Orthopaedics]
- [http://www.wikimed.de/ Orthopaedics in WikiMed]
- [http://www.wikimed.de/ Traumatology in WikiMed]
- [http://www.wheelessonline.com/index.htm Wheeless' Textbook of Orthopaedics]
- [http://www.sicot.org/ The International Society of Orthopaedic Surgery and Traumatology]
- [http://www.aaos.org/ American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons ja:整形外科学

Rack (torture)

The rack is a torture device. It consists of a rectangular, usually wooden frame, with a roller at one, or both, ends. The victim's feet are manacled to one roller, and the wrists are chained to the other. As the interrogation progresses, a handle and ratchet attached to the top roller are used to very gradually stepwise increase the tension on the chains, which induces excruciating pain as the victim's joints slowly dislocate. It was used throughout Europe, being the chief instrument of torture in many dungeons. Because of its mechanically precise, graded operation, it is particulaly suited for hard interrogation, as to extract a confession. One gruesome aspect of being stretched -deliberately- too far on the rack are the loud popping noises made by snapping cartilage, ligaments or bones. Eventually, if the application of the rack is continued, the victim's limbs are ripped right off. One powerful method for putting pressure upon a prisoner was to merely force him to view someone else being subjected to the rack. Indeed, a person stretched on the rack presented the ultimate spectacle of the body in pain. A victim would often be placed on the rack naked or nearly so, and their taught skin would run with the sweat of their agonies. Wrists and ankles would be swollen and bloodied from the bite of ropes or manacles. The spread-eagled posture left no part of the body invulnerable from the application of other devices like hot irons or pincers, or immune from the attention of those gathered to observe the torture. Well known victims of the rack include Guy Fawkes, Edmund Campion and Anne Askew in England, and Queen Brunhilda in France.
- In some versions of a Classical Greek mythology, the bandit king Procrustes was famed for his use of the rack.

Punitive positioning contraptions

The term rack is also used, occasionally, for a number of simpler constructions that constitute no such mechanical torture device, but simply to position the victim over for some physical punishment, after which it may be named specifically, e.g. caning rack, since in a given jurisdiction it was often custom or even prescribed to administer any given punishment in a specific position, for which the device (with our without fitting shackling and/or padding) would be chosen or specially made.

Fracture (bone)

A bone fracture is a medical condition in which a bone becomes cracked, splintered, or bisected as a result of physical trauma.

Classification

In medicine, fractures are classified as closed or open (compound) and simple or multi-fragmentary (formerly comminuted). Closed fractures are those in which the skin is intact, while open (compound) fractures involve wounds that communicate with the fracture and may expose bone to contamination. Open injuries carry an elevated risk of infection; they require antibiotic treatment and usually urgent surgical treatment (debridement). This involves removal of all dirt, contamination, and dead tissue. Simple fractures are fractures that occur along one line, splitting the bone into two pieces, while multi-fragmentary fractures involve the bone splitting into multiple pieces. A simple, closed fracture is much easier to treat and has a much better prognosis than an open, comminuted fracture. Other considerations in fracture care are displacement (fracture gap) and angulation. If angulation or displacement is large, reduction (manipulation) of the bone may be required and, in adults, frequently requires surgical care. These injuries may take longer to heal than injuries without displacement or angulation. In children, whose bones are still developing, there are risks of either a growth plate injury or a greenstick fracture. This type of fracture occurs because the bone is not as brittle as it would be in an adult, and thus does not completely fracture, but rather exhibits bowing without complete disruption of the bone's cortex. Growth plate injuries require careful treatment and accurate reduction to make sure that the bone continues to grow normally. Plastic deformation of the bone, in which the bone permanently bends but does not break, is also possible in children. These injuries may require an osteotomy (bone cut) to realign the bone if it is fixed and cannot be realigned by closed methods. Orthopaedic surgeons have devised an elaborate [http://www.ota.org/compendium/index.htm classification system] to describe the injury accurately and guide treatment. Description of a fracture starts by naming the bone and the part of the bone involved (e.g. shaft of the femur). It is important to note whether the fracture is simple or multifragmentary and whether it is closed or open. The geometry of the fracture is also described by terms such as transverse, oblique, spiral, or segmental. Other features of the fracture are described in terms of displacement, angulation and shortening. A stable fracture is one which is likely to stay in a good (functional) position while it heals; an unstable one is likely to shorten, angulate or rotate before healing and lead to poor function in the long term.

Bone response

The natural process of healing a fracture starts when the injured bone and surrounding tissues bleed. The blood coagulates to form a blood clot situated between the broken fragments. Within a few days blood vessels grow into the jelly-like matrix of the blood clot. The new blood vessels bring white blood cells to the area, which gradually remove the non-viable material. The blood vessels also bring fibroblasts in the walls of the vessels and these multiply and produce collagen fibres. In this way the blood clot is replaced by a matrix of collagen. Collagen's rubbery consistency allows bone fragments to move only a small amount unless severe or persistent force is applied. At this stage, some of the fibroblasts begin to lay down bone matrix (calcium hydroxyapatite) in the form of insoluble crystals. This mineralization of the collagen matrix stiffens it and transforms it into bone. In fact bone is a mineralized collagen matrix; if the mineral is dissolved out of bone, it becomes rubbery. Healing bone callus is on average sufficiently mineralized to show up on X-ray within 6 weeks in adults and less in children. This initial "woven" bone does not have the strong mechanical properties of mature bone. By a process of remodelling, the woven bone is replaced by mature "lamellar" bone. The whole process can take up to 18 months, but in adults the strength of the healing bone is usually 80% of normal by 3 months after the injury.

Treatment

First aid for fractures includes stabilizing the break with a splint in order to prevent movement of the injured part, which could sever blood vessels and cause further tissue damage. Waxed cardboard splints are inexpensive, lightweight, waterproof and strong. Compound fractures are treated as open wounds in addition to fractures. At the hospital, closed fractures are diagnosed by taking an X-ray photograph of the injury. Since bone healing is a natural process which will most often occur, fracture treatment aims to ensure the best possible function of the injured part after healing. Bone fractures are typically treated by restoring the fractured pieces of bone to their natural positions (if necessary), and maintaining those positions while the bone heals. To this end, a fractured limb is usually immobilized with a plaster or fiberglass cast which holds the bones in position and immobilizes the joints above and below the fracture. In some cases surgical nails, screws, plates and wires are used to hold the fractured bone together more directly. Occasionally smaller bones, such as toes, may be treated without the cast, by buddy wrapping them, which serves a similar function to making a cast. By allowing only limited movement, fixation helps preserve anatomical alignment while enabling callus formation, towards the target of achieving union. Operative methods of treating fractures have their own risks and benefits, but usually surgery is done only if conservative treatment has failed or is very likely to fail. With some fractures such as hip fractures, surgery is offered routinely, because the complications of non-operative treatment include deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism, which are more dangerous than surgery. When a joint surface is damaged by a fracture, surgery is also commonly recommended to make an accurate anatomical reduction and restore the smoothness of the joint. Infection is especially dangerous in bones, due to their limited blood flow. Bone tissue is predominantly extracellular matrix, rather than living cells, and the few blood vessels needed to support this low metabolism are only able to bring a limited number of immune cells to an injury to fight infection. For this reason, open fractures and osteotomies call for very careful antiseptic procedures and prophylactic antibiotics. Sometimes bones are reinforced with metal, but these fracture implants must be designed and installed with care. Stress shielding occurs when plates or screws carry too large of a portion of the bone's load, causing atrophy. This problem is reduced, but not eliminated, by the use of low-modulus materials, including titanium and its alloys. The heat generated by the friction of installing hardware can easily accumulate and damage bone tissue, reducing the strength of the connections. If dissimilar metals are installed in contact with one another (i.e., a titanium plate with cobalt-chromium alloy or stainless steel screws), galvanic corrosion will result. The metal ions produced can damage the bone locally and may cause systemic effects as well.

External links

- [http://www.wildernessmanuals.com/manual_4/chpt_4/index.html First Aid for Fractures] - From Wildernessmanuals.com
- [http://www.ota.org/compendium/index.htm Fracture and Dislocation Compendium of the Orthopaedic Trauma Association] category:fractures Category:Traumatology ko:골절 ja:骨折

Category:Inventions

Inventions, of any stripe. Category:Innovation Category:Technology

In God We Trust

In God We Trust (« En Dieu nous avons confiance ») est l'une des deux devises nationales américaines. Elle est adoptée comme telle depuis 1956. (L'autre, E Pluribus Unum, De plusieurs un, est toujours employée couramment.) In God We Trust figure sur tous les billets et sur toutes les pièces de monnaie américaine, mais cette présence n'a été généralisée que de manière assez récente.

Histoire

Dans The Star-Spangled Banner, écrit en 1814 par Francis Scott Key, mais qui n'a été adopté comme hymne officiel qu'en 1931, le dernier vers dit : And this be our motto: « In God is our trust. » (et ce sera notre devise : En Dieu est notre confiance). Il semble que la montée du sentiment religieux, qui aboutit au choix d'une telle devise, prenne son origine dans le traumatisme de la Guerre de Sécession. C'est à cette époque que Salmon P. Chase, secrétaire du Trésor, a reçu un grand nombre de lettres de personnes très pieuses réclamant que le nom de Dieu figure sur les monnaies de l'Union. Il écrit à son tour en 1861 à James Pollock, directeur du United States Mint à Philadelphie (qui frappe les monnaies), pour lui demander de trouver une devise pieuse à apposer aux pièces de monnaie américaines : :« Dear Sir: No nation can be strong except in the strength of God, or safe except in His defense. The trust of our people in God should be declared on our national coins ». En 1863, James Pollock soumet à Salmon P. Chase plusieurs propositions de devises, mais c'est Chase qui trouvera la phrase définitive : In God We Trust. Après l'accord du Congrès, la devise apparaît pour la première fois sur la pièce de 2 cents frappée en 1864. Cela s'étendra à plusieurs autres pièces, mais pas de manière systématique et continue. Par exemple, de 1883 à 1938, la formule disparaît des pièces de 5 cents et est oubliée sur de nombreuses autres. Depuis 1938, toutes les pièces de monnaie américaines portent l'inscription In God We Trust. Ce n'est qu'en 1956 que le Congrès américain vote une loi (approuvée par le Président le 30 juillet de la même année) faisant de In God We Trust l'une des devises nationales qui, à ce titre, apparaîtra par la suite sur toutes les monnaies (à partir de 1957) et les billets de banque (dans la période de 1964 à 1966.)

Controverses

La devise In God We Trust a eu et a toujours des détracteurs aux États-Unis, pour des raisons politiques, historiques mais aussi religieuses :
- politiques, car une telle devise nie la séparation de l'Église et de l'État ;
- historiques, car il est admis aujourd'hui que la généralisation de la devise est avant tout une réaction, dans le cadre de la Guerre froide, à l'athéisme soviétique ;
- religieuses, puisque pour de nombreux croyants (comme par exemple Theodore Roosevelt), mettre le nom de Dieu sur quelque chose d'aussi trivial qu'une monnaie relève du blasphème.

Lien externe

- [http://www.treas.gov/education/fact-sheets/currency/in-god-we-trust.html La devise sur le site du département du trésor américain] Catégorie: États-Unis

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:: RELATED NEWS ::

Hippocratic bench

References

Hippocrates

Writings

Works

The "portrait" of Hippocrates

See also

External links

380 BC

Events

Births

Deaths

Tension

See also

Traction

Orthopedics

Qualifications

Field of work

History

Terminology

See also

External links

Rack (torture)

Punitive positioning contraptions

See also

Fracture (bone)

Classification

Bone response

Treatment

See also

External links

Category:Inventions

In God We Trust

Histoire

Controverses

Lien externe