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EuroCity

EuroCity

EuroCity, abbreviated EC, denotes a train service within the European inter-city rail network. In contrast to trains with the "IC" (InterCity) label, "EC" trains are international trains that meet certain criteria described below. During the pre-Schengen era, passport checks were conducted on EC trains while in motion, rather than while parked at a station or requiring the passengers to disembark, as was sometimes the case for non EC trains.

Criteria

- train through two or more countries
- all cars air-conditioned
- stop only at major cities
- stops for no more than five minutes, in special cases up to 15 minutes
- food and beverages available onboard (preferably from a dining car)
- conductors speak at least two languages, one of which must be English, French or German
- average speed (including stops) above 90 km/h, exceptions for mountainous terrain and train ferries
- daytime journey (start after 6:00, arrival earlier than 0:00)

Other uses

EuroCity is also the intended name of the crossborder town to be created when Tornio, Finland and Haparanda, Sweden are joined together. Category:Rail transport Category:Transportation in Europe

Train

:For other types of train see train (disambiguation) In rail transport, a train consists of a single or several connected rail vehicles that are capable of being moved together along a guideway to transport freight or passengers from one place to another along a planned route. The guideway (permanent way) usually consists of conventional rail tracks, but might also be monorail or maglev. Propulsion for the train is typically provided by a separate locomotive, or from individual motors in self-propelled multiple units. Power is usually derived from diesel engines or from electricity supplied by trackside systems. Historically the steam engine was the dominant form of locomotive power, and other sources of power (such as horses, pneumatics, or gas turbines) are possible as well. In American railway terminology, a consist is used to describe the group of rail vehicles which make up a train.

Types of trains

railway terminology, Perth ]] There are various types of trains designed for particular purposes, see rail transport operations. A train can consist of a combination of a locomotive and attached railroad cars, or a self-propelled multiple unit (or occasionally a single powered coach, called a railcar). Trains can also be hauled by horses, pulled by a cable, or run downhill by gravity. Special kinds of trains running on corresponding special 'railways' are atmospheric railways, monorails, high-speed railways, Dinky Trains, maglev, rubber-tired underground, funicular and cog railways. cog railway A passenger train may consist of one or several locomotives, and one or more coaches. Alternatively, a train may consist entirely of passenger carrying coaches, some or all of which are powered as a "multiple unit". In many parts of the world, particularly Japan and Europe, high-speed rail is utilized extensively for passenger travel. Freight trains comprise wagons or trucks rather than carriages, though some parcel and mail trains (especially Travelling Post Offices) are outwardly more like passenger trains. In the United Kingdom, a train hauled by two locomotives is said to be "double-headed", and in Canada and the United States it is quite common for a long freight train to be headed by three, four, or even five locomotives. Trains can also be mixed, hauling both passengers and freight, see e.g. Transportation in Mauritania. Such mixed trains became rare in many countries, but were commonplace on the first 19th-century railroads. Special trains are also used for track maintenance; in some places, this is called maintenance of way. A single uncoupled rail vehicle is not technically a train, but is usually referred to as such for signaling reasons.

Motive power

maintenance of way] The first trains were rope-hauled or pulled by horses, but from the early 19th century almost all were powered by steam locomotives. From the 1920s onwards they began to be replaced by less labor intensive and cleaner (but more expensive) diesel locomotives and electric locomotives, while at about the same time self-propelled multiple unit vehicles of either power system became much more common in passenger service. Most countries had replaced steam locomotives for day-to-day use by the 1970s. A few countries, most notably the People's Republic of China where coal is in cheap and plentiful supply, still use steam locomotives, but this is being gradually phased out. Historic steam trains still run in many other countries, for the leisure and enthusiast market. coal Electric traction offers a lower cost per mile of train operation but at a very high initial cost, which can only be justified on high traffic lines. Since the cost per mile of construction is much higher, electric traction is less favored on long-distance lines. Electric trains receive their current via overhead lines or through a third rail electric system.

Passenger trains

Passenger trains have Passenger cars. Passenger trains travel between stations; the distance between stations may vary from under 1 km to much more. Long-distance trains, sometimes crossing several countries, may have a dining or restaurant car; they may also have sleeping cars, but not in the case of high-speed rail, these arrive at their destination before the night falls and are in competition with airplanes in speed. Very long distance trains such as those on the Trans-Siberian railway are usually not high-speed. Very fast trains sometimes tilt, like the Pendolino or Talgo. Tilting is a system where the passenger cars automatically lean into curves, reducing the centrifugal forces acting on passengers and permitting higher speeds on curves in the track with greater passenger comfort. For trains connecting cities, we can distinguish inter-city trains, which do not halt at small stations, and trains that serve all stations, usually known as local trains or "stoppers" (and sometimes an intermediate kind, see also limited-stop). limited-stop For shorter distances many cities have networks of commuter trains, serving the city and its suburbs. Some carriages may be laid out to have more standing room than seats, or to facilitate the carrying of prams, cycles or wheelchairs. Some countries have some double-decked passenger trains for use in conurbations. Double deck high speed and sleeper trains are becoming more common in Europe. Passenger trains usually have emergency brake handles (or a "communication cord") that the public can operate. Abuse is punished by a fine. fine Large cities often have a metro system, also called underground, subway or tube. The trains are electrically powered, usually by third rail, and their railroads are separate from other traffic, without level crossings. Usually they run in tunnels in the city center and sometimes on elevated structures in the outer parts of the city. They can accelerate and decelerate faster than heavier, long-distance trains. A light one- or two-car rail vehicle running through the streets is not called a train but a tram, trolley, light rail vehicle or streetcar, but the distinction is not strict. The term light rail is sometimes used for a modern tram, but it may also mean an intermediate form between a tram and a train, similar to metro except that it may have level crossings. These are often protected with crossing gates. They may also be called a trolley. Maglev trains and monorails represent minor technologies in the train field. The term rapid transit is used for public transport such as commuter trains, metro and light rail. However, in New York City, lines on the New York City Subway have been referred to as "trains".

Freight trains

Passenger train human waste disposal Freight trains have freight cars. Much of the world's freight is transported by train. In the USA the rail system is used mostly for transporting freight (or cargo). Under the right circumstances, transporting freight by train is highly economic, and also more energy efficient than transporting freight by road. Rail freight is most economic when freight is being carried in bulk and over long distances, but is less suited to short distances and small loads. The main disadvantage of rail freight is its lack of flexibility. For this reason, rail has lost much of the freight business to road competition. Many governments are now trying to encourage more freight onto trains, because of the environmental benefits that it would bring. road competition]] There are many different types of freight train, which are used to carry many different kinds of freight, with many different types of wagon. One of the most common types on modern railways are container trains, whereby the containers can be lifted on and off the train by cranes and loaded off or onto trucks or ships. ship in 1992.]] This type of freight train has largely superseded the traditional "box wagon" type of freight train, whereby the cargo had to be loaded or unloaded manually. In some countries "piggy back" trains are used whereby trucks can drive straight onto the train and drive off again when the end destination is reached. A system like this is used on the Channel Tunnel between England and France. Piggy back trains are the fastest growing type of freight trains in the United States, where they are also known as 'trailer on flat car' or TOFC trains. There are also some "inter-modal" vehicles, which have two sets of wheels, for use in a train, or as the trailer of a road vehicle. There are also many other types of wagon, such as "low loader" wagons for transporting road vehicles. There are refrigerator wagons for transporting food. There are simple types of open-topped wagons for transporting minerals and bulk material such as coal and tankers for tranporting liquids and gases. Freight trains are sometimes illegally boarded by passengers who do not wish, or do not have the money, to travel by ordinary means. This is referred to as "Hopping" and is considered by some communities to be a viable form of transport. Most hoppers sneak into train yards and stow away in boxcars. More bold hoppers will catch a train "on the fly", that is, as it is moving, leading to occasional fatalities, some of which go unrecorded.

Famous train routes

Main article: Famous trains Famous historical train services include the:
- Orient Express in Europe.
- Trans-Siberian in Russia.
- Blue Train in South Africa.
- Train-de-Luxe from Johannesburg to Victoria Falls.
- Chihuahua al Pacifico in Mexico.
- Palace on Wheels in Rajasthan, India.
- Frontier Mail and Grand Trunk Express, India.
- The Canadian in Canada.
- 20th Century Limited in the USA.
- City of New Orleans in the USA.
- California Zephyr in the USA.
- The Indian-Pacific and The Ghan in Australia (long-distance rail).
- Puffing Billy and The Gulflander in Australia (heritage and touring).
- Rheingold Express in The Netherlands, Germany and Switzerland, following the course of the Rhine.

Fictional trains

See also: Rail transport in fiction
- Hogwarts Express — Takes Harry Potter to Hogwarts Academy.
- Taggart Comet (Atlas Shrugged)
- The Great Train Robbery — feature film based on a true story, also title of a modern film.
- Starlight Express (Andrew Lloyd Webber) — Musical about an old steam engine being replaced by an electrical engine.
- Galaxy Express 999 — From the manga and anime of the same name by Leiji Matsumoto, this train travels the galaxy from planet to planet.
- The Polar Express — From the book of the same name, this train takes children to the North Pole.
- Runaway Train — Film about escaped inmates on a runaway train.
- Atomic Train — TV movie (1999) A runaway train carrying an atomic bomb into a town.
- Thomas the Tank Engine and Friends TV Series originated from The Railway Series by the Rev.W.Awdry For a list of railway movies, see [http://www.spikesys.com/Trains/rly_movs.html] (website last updated December 5, 1995).

External links

- [http://www.raileurope.co.uk Book European rail travel online]
- [http://www.railfaneurope.net High Speed Train]
- Official [http://ojp.nationalrail.co.uk/planmyjourney/time_table/journey_requirements.asp train times] in the UK (from [http://www.nationalrail.co.uk/ National Rail]).
- [http://www.railserve.com/ RailServe.com: The Internet Railroad Directory] - directory of 10,000 train sites
- [http://www.trainfoamers.com Trainfoamers.com] - It's Free To Talk Trains Again!
- [http://www.trainorders.com Trainorders.com] - Focus on trains of North America Category:Vehicles Category:Rail transport ms:Keretapi ja:列車

Inter-city rail

Inter-city rail services are express train services which cover longer distances than commuter trains.

Europe

In Europe, many long distance inter-urban trains are operated under the InterCity brand. The term InterCity originated with British Rail's InterCity sector, but the term went out of official use in the UK following privatisation. The principal network of inter-city trains in continental Europe is called EuroCity, distinguished from the InterCity network by its better support for international travels even though IC trains also traverse borders. High-speed railways have particularly few stops. The German high-speed train line was named InterCity Express indicating evolution from older InterCity trains. In Great Britain, the inter-city rail links are now operated by a number of private companies. In Ireland, the inter-city rail network is maintained by Iarnród Éireann and Northern Ireland Railways.

United States

In the United States, the inter-city trains are operated by Amtrak over a network which is much less dense than the European one.

Australia

In Australia, the national inter-city network operated by Great Southern Railway connects all mainland Australian capital cities except Canberra and Brisbane. Other inter-city trains that traverse shorter distances are operated by V/Line, CountryLink, Queensland Rail and Transwa. Australian inter-city" trains are not true inter-city services, given their leisurely speed and primary role, to transport people between regional areas and the nearest capital city or for the tourist market. As a result, Australian networks refer to these services as "country" trains, with the term "intercity" used informally to describe long-distance commuter rail, e.g. by CityRail. For true inter-city travel Australians usually fly, given the massive distance involved in travel in Australia, what are usually slow speeds, poor rail corridor alignments and the lack of dedication to providing quality rail services by both the Commonwealth and State governments. The fastest trains in regular service are the tilting trains used by Queensland Rail, which have a top speed of 160km/h and an average of only 80km/h. In Australia, electrified interurban commuter railway systems are used to connect urban areas separated by long distances and use heavy rail equipment:
- In Sydney CityRail operates an extensive interurban network of four main routes from Sydney. These run to Newcastle and the Central Coast, the Blue Mountains, the Southern Highlands and the South Coast.
- In Brisbane CityTrain operates a smaller interurban commuter network of three lines which connect Brisbane to the Gold Coast in the south, the Sunshine Coast in the north and Rosewood in the west. On these systems, services either run as limited-stop expresses in the suburban area (e.g. Blue Mountains services) or as shuttles terminating where the suburban lines end (e,g. Rosewood services).
- In Perth a new electric interurban rail line running down the middle of the Kwinana Freeway will serve Mandurah by 2007. A large scale non-electric project of four regional lines is also planned for Victoria. Current commuter journeys outside the suburban area are usually locomotive-hauled, due to Victoria's lack of electrification outside of Melbourne, but these accept Metlink tickets.

Intercity

Inter-city rail services are express train services which cover longer distances than commuter trains.

Europe

United States

In the United States, the inter-city trains are operated by Amtrak over a network which is much less dense than the European one.

Australia

Schengen treaty

The Schengen treaty is an agreement between European states which allows for common immigration policies and border system. 26 countries (all European Union states except Ireland and the United Kingdom, but including Iceland, Norway and Switzerland) have signed the agreement and 15 have implemented it so far. Border posts and checks have been removed between Schengen countries and a common 'Schengen visa' allows access to the area, however the treaty does not cover residency or work permits for non-EU nationals. __TOC__ The agreement was originally signed on June 14, 1985, by five European countries (Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, and The Netherlands). The agreement was signed aboard the ship Princesse Marie-Astrid on the Moselle River, near Schengen, a small town in Luxembourg on the border with France and Germany. Its goal was to end border checkpoints and controls within the Schengen area (also known as Schengenland) and harmonise external border controls. It was originally separate from the European Union (then European Community) but has since become an EU competence, although there are some non-EU members inside the Schengen area and some EU members outside. Additional countries have since also signed the convention, bringing the total number of signatories to twenty-six.

Membership and implementation

The treaty signed in 1985 established the steps to be taken to create the Schengen area. An additional document, called the Schengen Convention (or more fully: Convention applying the Schengen Agreement of 14 June 1985 between the governments of the states of the Benelux Economic Union, the Federal Republic of Germany, and the French Republic on the gradual abolition of checks at their common borders), was created which put the Schengen area into practice. This second document replaced the first and was signed by each country on the dates shown below. For each member country there has been a delay between signing the treaty (becoming a member) and actually implementing it.

Membership

- June 14, 1985 Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, Netherlands
- November 27, 1990 - Italy
- June 25, 1992 - Portugal, Spain
- November 6, 1992 - Greece
- April 28, 1995 - Austria
- December 19, 1996 - Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden
- May 1, 2004 - Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia (not yet implemented)
- October 16, 2004 - Switzerland (ratified by referendum on June 5, 2005)

Exceptions

The following territories of the membership countries are not covered by the treaty:
- Heligoland of Germany
- Svalbard of Norway (But Jan Mayen Island is covered by the treaty.)
- Greenland and the Faroe Islands of Denmark, although formally excluded from the Schengen area, are integrated with it. (It was laid down in the association agreement with Denmark that persons travelling between the Faroe Islands and Greenland on the one hand, and the Schengen Member States on the other hand, are not subject of a border check. The traditional Free Movement of Persons acquis of the European Community is not applicable to Greenland and to the Faroe Islands.)

Implementation

- March 26, 1995 - Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain
- 1997 - Italy (October 26), Austria (December 1). Greece (December 8) implements theoretically but in practice internal border controls continue until 2000
- March 26, 2000 - Greece implements the treaty fully
- March 25, 2001 Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Norway, Iceland The ten countries who signed on May 1 2004 are set to implement the treaty in October 2007. Switzerland also has to implement the treaty; therefore only fifteen countries are currently full members of the Schengen Treaty. There are some countries other than the Schengen signatories that should also be mentioned: Monaco, San Marino and the Vatican City although not formally part of the Schengen zone are integrated into it. However Andorra is not similarly integrated into the Schengen zone and border controls remain. None of these states have concluded agreements on the Traditional Free Movement of Persons with the European Community and are not signatories to the Treaty; however they have existing agreements with their neighbouring countries removing border controls. In the case of Monaco, which borders onto the Mediterranean Sea, the Schengen Treaty is administered as if Monaco were a part of France, with French authorities carrying out the Schengen checks at Monaco's sea port. Liechtenstein is not yet part of the Schengen area; it has an open border with Switzerland (which has not yet implemented the treaty) but border controls are still carried out between it and its EU neighbours. As part of the European Economic Area it applies the Traditional Free Movement of Persons acquis of the European Community; Liechtenstein intends to adhere to the Schengen area and negotiations will start in the Autumn of 2005. [http://derstandard.at/?url=/?id=2069213 1]

Treaty provisions

Before Schengen, citizens of western European countries could travel to neighbouring countries by showing their national ID card or passport at the border. Nationals of some other countries required separate visas for every country in Europe they wished to visit. A vast network of Border posts existed around the continent, disrupting traffic, trade and causing delays and costs to both businesses and visitors. The Schengen Treaty removed border checks between participating countries. The Schengen Treaty also means that participating countries will co-ordinate their external controls. This is necessary since a person acceptable to one country but not to another can still enter both, if one admits him. For example, immigration policy must be agreed upon as immigrants can enter through the most relaxed border and make their way to less hospitable countries once within Schengenland unless entry criteria are homogeneous. A country is permitted by the article 2.2 of the treaty to reinstate border controls for a short period if it is deemed in the interest of national security. This occurred in Portugal during the 2004 European Football Championship and in France for the ceremonies marking the 60th anniversary of D-Day. It was used again by France shortly after the London bombings in July of 2005 (This was despite the fact that the UK is not part of Schengen and the France-UK border controls were always in place. One of the bombers anyway managed to pass unimpeded through France, only to be arrested in Rome). Finland briefly reinstated border controls during the 2005 World Championships in Athletics that took place in Helsinki Olympic Stadium during August 2005. The Schengen Treaty also includes consent to share information about people, via the Schengen Information System. This means that a potentially undesirable person cannot 'disappear' simply by moving from one participant country to another as each country will know the same about the person's background. Previously, a criminal with police in hot pursuit would be safe once they managed to cross the border, but under the agreements of the Schengen Treaty police from one nation can cross national borders to chase their target. The Schengen Treaty intends to harmonise the laws and regulations of several policy areas, in order to minimise the extent to which criminals can take advantage of the relaxation of controls. For example, the Dutch policy on drugs differs from the French policy, and a person could buy drugs in the Netherlands and transport them to France to sell on the black market. This is much easier when there are no border controls between the two countries. As a result of this particular difference in policy France insisted on maintaining border controls on people entering France from the Benelux countries for some time after the Treaty was implemented.

Schengen and the European Union

All Schengen Treaty signatories except Norway, Iceland and Switzerland are European Union members. Two EU members (the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland) have opted not to sign the Schengen Treaty. The UK wishes to maintain its own borders and Ireland has a free movement arrangement with the UK (called the Common Travel Area) similar to the Schengen Treaty, so in order to maintain this it can only sign the Schengen Treaty if the UK does. Because of the island nature of the British Isles and also because neither country issues ID cards to their nationals, there would be relatively few benefits to joining the treaty (Denmark issues CPR (Central Person Register) numbers to its citizens for the government-provided services instead of national ID cards). Also the UK has historically been reluctant to relax border controls because of its strict rules on bringing live animals into the country—the British Isles are free of rabies unlike much of Europe. Non-EU nationals living in the UK and Ireland would however benefit from the UK and Ireland joining the Schengen area, as they currently need to obtain separate UK, Irish and Schengen visas in order to travel within the EU. On May 29, 2000 the UK and Ireland began participating in the Schengen Information System. The Nordic countries have had a similar open borders scheme in effect between them since 1952, preserving this was the major reason for the non-EU countries of Norway and Iceland to join. The Schengen Treaty was created independently of the European Union in part due to the lack of consensus amongst EU members, and in part because those ready to implement the idea did not wish to wait for others who were not ready. The Treaty of Amsterdam incorporated the developments brought about by the Schengen agreement into the European Union framework, effectively making the Schengen Treaty part of the EU. Amongst other things the Council of the European Union took the place of the Executive Committee which had been created under the Schengen agreement. Future applicants to the European Union must fulfil the Schengen Treaty criteria regarding their external border policies in order to be accepted into the EU. The existing signatories who are not EU members have less opportunity to participate in shaping the evolution of the Schengen Treaty as a result of the Treaty of Amsterdam. Their options are effectively reduced to agreeing with whatever is presented before them or withdrawing from the Treaty. Despite the Schengen Treaty having been incorporated into the EU, it has not been voted upon by any EU institution. Because of this, there are some concerns regarding the democratic accountability of the Treaty. Greece, prior to accepting and signing the treaty, raised questions about the legality of the Schengen Information System, and suggested that it represented a violation of privacy. Additionally, The Schengen III treaty was signed on 27 May, 2005 by seven contries at Prüm, Germany. The treaty with which was agreed upon by Germany, Spain, France, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Austria, and Belgium is different from the Schengen treaty, but it's very similar in the sense that the Schengen treaty before the Treaty of Amsterdam was formed and approved by some of the energetic European contries having a same purpose. This treaty, based on the Principle of Availability which began to be discussed after the Madrid bomb attack on 11 March, 2004, could enable them to exchange all data regarding DNA, fingerprint data of concerned persons, and to cooperate against terrorism.

Gaining entry

Member States of the Schengen area have elaborated uniform rules as to the type of visas which may be issued for a short-term stay, not exceeding three months, on the territory of one, several or all of those States. The uniform visa enables aliens that are subject to the visa requirement to present themselves at the external border of the Member State which issued the visa or that of another Member State and request, depending on the type of visa, transit or stay. The uniform visa is granted in the form of a sticker affixed by a Member State onto a passport, travel document or another valid document which entitles the holder to cross the border. In other words, mere possession of a uniform visa does not confer automatic right of entry. It will only be granted if the other transit or entry conditions laid down by the Schengen Agreement have been met, notably the means of subsistence that aliens must have at their disposal, as well as the purpose and the conditions of the stay. Obtaining a Schengen visa means that the traveller must go through the following steps: # He must first identify the Schengen country of his main destination. This element will determine the State responsible for deciding on the Schengen visa application and therefore the embassy or the consulate where he will have lodge the application. If his intention is to visit several Schengen countries during his trip, he will have to file his visa application at the embassy of the country where he will make his first entry in Schengen area. If the Schengen State of his main destination or first entry does not have a diplomatic mission or consular post in his country, he will have to contact the embassy or the consulate of another Schengen country, normally located in his country, which represents, for the purpose of issuing Schengen visas, the country of his principal destination or of his first entry. # He must then present the Schengen visa application to the responsible embassy or consulate. A harmonised form is to be submitted, together with a valid passport and, if necessary, with the documents supporting the purpose and conditions of the stay in the Schengen area (aim of the visit, duration of the stay, lodging). He will also have to prove his means of subsistence, i.e. the funds that he has to cover: on the one hand, the expenses of his stay taking into account its duration and the place where he will reside and, on the other hand, the return in his home country. Bear in mind that certain embassies or consulates sometimes call the applicant to appear in person in order to explain verbally the reasons for the visa application. # The traveller must finally have a travel insurance which covers, for a minimum of € 30 000, any expenses in connection with repatriation for sanitary reasons or with emergency medical treatment occurred during his stay. The proof of the travel insurance must in principle be provided at the end of the procedure, i.e. when a positive decision has already been made as for the granting of the Schengen visa. For citizens of countries not party to the Schengen treaty, restrictions exist that govern the length of one's stay within the Schengen area. The general rule stipulates a maximum 90-day stay within a 180-day period beginning from the first day of entry. Provided a multiple-entry visa has been granted, one may leave and return a number of times within the 180-day period but the combined stay within the region must total no more than 90 days.

External links

- [http://www.eurovisa.info/SchengenCountries.htm Schengen Countries] (source for this article)
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4612281.stm Switzerland joins Schengen] (from BBC)
- [http://www.mediavisa.net MediaVisa.net]- The Schengen Visa portal (another source for this article) Category:EU treaties Category:European Union law ja:シェンゲン条約

Air-conditioned

:Note: in the broadest sense, "air conditioning" can refer to any form of "heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning." This article is specifically about the use of refrigeration for this purpose. :The first album of the pop group Curved Air was called Airconditioning An air conditioner (often abbreviated to AC in the United States and Canada, and air-con in Australia and in Britain) is an appliance or mechanism designed to extract heat from an area using a refrigeration cycle. In construction, a complete system of heating, ventilation and air conditioning is referred to as HVAC. An earlier form of air conditioning was invented in Persia (Iran) thousands of years ago in the form of wind shafts on the roof, which caught the wind and passed it through water and blew the cooled air into the building [http://www.metafilter.com/comments.mefi/26911]. The 19th century British scientist and inventor, Michael Faraday discovered that compressing and liquefying a certain gas could chill air when the liquified gas was allowed to evaporate. His idea remained largely theoretical. One of the first uses of air conditioning for personal comfort was in 1902 when the New York Stock Exchange's new building was equipped with a central cooling as well as heating system. Alfred Wolff, an engineer from Hoboken, New Jersey who is considered the forerunner in the quest to cool a working environment, helped design the new system, transferring this budding technology from textile mills to commercial buildings. Later in 1902, the first modern, electrical air conditioning was invented by Willis Haviland Carrier (1876–1950). His invention differed from Wolff's in that it controlled not only temperature, but also humidity for improved manufacturing process control for a printing plant in Brooklyn, New York. This specifically helped to provide low heat and humidity for consistent paper dimensions and ink alignment. Later, Carrier's technology was applied to increase productivity in the workplace, and the Carrier Engineering Company, now called Carrier (a division of United Technologies Corporation), was formed in 1915 to meet the new demand. Later still, air conditioning use was expanded to improve comfort in homes and automobiles. Residential sales didn't take off until the 1950's. In 1906, Stuart Cramer first used the term "air conditioning" as he explored ways to add moisture to the air in his southern textile mill. He combined moisture with ventilation to actually "condition" and change the air in the factories, controlling the humidity so necessary in textile plants. The first air conditioners and refrigerators employed toxic gases like ammonia and methyl chloride, which resulted in fatal accidents when they leaked. Thomas Midgley, Jr. created the first chlorofluorocarbon gas, dubbed Freon in 1928. The refrigerant proved much safer for humans but not for the atmosphere's ozone layer. "Freon" is a trade name of Dupont for any CFC, HCFC, or HFC refrigerant, the name of each including a number indicating molecular composition (R-11, R-12, R-22, R-134). The blend most used in direct-expansion comfort cooling is an HCFC known as R-22, and is slated to be phased out for use in new equipment by 2010 and completely discontinued by 2020. R-11 and R-12 are no longer manufactured in the US, the only source for purchase being the cleaned and purified gas recovered from other air conditioner systems.

Types of air conditioning

Refrigeration cycle

1928 In the refrigeration cycle, a heat pump pumps heat from a lower temperature heat source into a higher temperature heat sink. Heat would naturally flow in the opposite direction. This is the most common type of air conditioning. A refrigerator works in much the same way, as it pumps the heat out of the interior into the room in which it stands. This cycle takes advantage of the universal gas law PV = nRT, where P is pressure, V is volume, R is the universal gas constant, T is temperature, and n is the number of moles of gas (1 mole = 6.022
- 10^23 molecules. All quantities are in SI units). The most common refrigeration cycle uses an electric motor to drive a compressor. In an automobile the compressor is driven by a pulley on the engine's crankshaft, with both using electric motors for air circulation. Since evaporation absorbs heat, and condensation releases it, air conditioners are designed to use a compressor to cause pressure changes between two compartments, and actively pump a refrigerant around. A refrigerant is pumped into the cooled compartment (the evaporator coil), where the low pressure and load temperature cause the refrigerant to evaporate into a vapour, taking heat with it. In the other compartment (the condenser), the refrigerant vapour is compressed and forced through another heat exchange coil, condensing into a liquid, rejecting the heat previously absorbed from the cooled space.

Humidity

Refrigeration air conditioning equipment usually reduces the humidity of the air processed by the system. The relatively cold (below the dewpoint) evaporator coil condenses water vapor from the processed air, (much like an ice cold drink will condense water on the outside of a glass), sending the water to a drain and removing water vapor from the cooled space and lowering the relative humidity. Since humans perspire to provide natural cooling by the evaporation of perspiration from the skin, drier air (up to a point) improves the comfort provided. The comfort air conditioner is designed to create a 40% to 60% relative humidity in the occupied space. In food retailing establishments large open chiller cabinets act as highly effective air dehumidifing units.

Refrigerants

"Freon" is a trade name for a family of fluorocarbon refrigerants manufactured by DuPont and other companies. These refrigerants were commonly used due to their superior stability and safety properties. Unfortunately, evidence has accumulated that these chlorine bearing refrigerants reach the upper atmosphere when they escape. The chemistry is poorly understood but general consensus seems to be that CFCs break up in the stratosphere due to UV-radiation, releasing their chlorine atoms. These chlorine atoms act as catalysts in the breakdown of ozone, which does severe damage to the ozone layer that shields the Earth's surface from the strong UV radiation. The chlorine will remain active as a catalyst until and unless it binds with another particle forming a stable molecule. CFC refrigerants in common but receding usage include R-11 and R-12. Newer and more environmentally-safe refrigerants include HCFCs (R-22, used in most homes today) and HFCs (R-134a, used in most cars) have replaced most CFC use.

Evaporation coolers

The aforementioned Persian cooling systems were evaporation coolers. In very dry climates, such affectionately called "swamp coolers" are popular for improving comfort during hot weather. The evaporative cooler is a device that draws outside air through a wet pad. The sensible heat of the incoming air, as measured by a dry bulb thermometer, is reduced. The total heat (sensible heat plus latent heat) of the entering air is unchanged. Some of the sensible heat of the entering air is converted to latent heat by the evaporation of water in the wet cooler pads. If the entering air is dry enough, the results can be quite comfortable. These coolers cost less and are mechanically simple to understand and maintain. An early type of cooler, using ice for a further effect, was patented by John Gorrie of Apalachicola, FL in 1842, who used the device to cool the patients of his malaria hospital. A three-stage absorptive cooler exists that first dehumidifies the air with a spray of salt brine. The brine osmotically absorbs water vapor from the air. The second stage sprays water in the air, evaporatively cooling (via absorptive refrigeration) the air. Finally, to control the humidity, the air passes through another brine spray. The brine is reconcentrated by distillation. The system is used in some hospitals because, with filtering, a sufficiently hot regenerative distillation controls airborne organisms.

Absorptive chillers

Some buildings use gas turbines to generate electricity. The exhausts of these are hot enough to drive an absorptive chiller that produces cold water. The cold water is then run through radiators in air ducts for hydronic cooling. The dual use of the energy, both to generate electricity and cooling, makes this technology attractive when regional utility and fuel prices are right. Producing heat, power, and cooling in one system is known as trigeneration.

Power

Air conditioner equipment power in the U.S. is often described in terms of "tons of refrigeration". A "ton of refrigeration" is defined as the cooling power of one ton US (2000 pounds or 907 kilograms) of ice melting in a 24-hour period. This is equal to 12,000 BTU per hour, or 3510 watts (http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/SP811/appenB9.html). Residential "central air" systems are usually from 1 to 5 tons (3 to 20 kW) in capacity. The use of electric/compressive air conditioning puts a major demand on the nation's electrical power grid in warm weather, when most units are operating under heavy load. In the aftermath of the 2003 North America blackout locals were asked to keep their air conditioning off. During peak demand, additional power plants must often be brought online, usually natural gas fired plants because of their rapid startup. A 1995 study of various utility studies of residential air conditioning concluded that the average air conditioner wasted 40% of the input energy. This energy is lost, ironically, in the form of heat, which must be pumped out. There is a huge opportunity to reduce the need for new power plants and to conserve energy. In an automobile the A/C system will use around 5 hp (4 kW) of the engine's power.

Insulation

Insulation reduces the required power of the air conditioning system. Thick walls, reflective roofing material, curtains and trees next to building also cut down on system and energy requirements.

Home air conditioning systems around the world

Domestic air conditioning is most prevalent and ubiquitous in the first-world nations of East Asia (Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, etc.). In this area, with soaring summer temperatures and a relatively high standard of living, air conditioning is considered a necessity and not a luxury. Japanese-made domestic air conditioners are usually window or split types, the latter being more modern and expensive. In the United States, home air conditioning is more prevalent in the South and on the East Coast, in some parts of which it has reached the ubiquity it enjoys in East Asia. On the West Coast, however, home air conditioning remains a luxury despite hot summers. Californians deal well with this lack of air conditioning, professing to enjoy the warmth of summer, but the situation is not as well-received in bourgeois immigrant communities. Central air systems are most common in the United States. In Europe, home air conditioning remains a rarity, and this lack is largely responsible for the estimated 35000 deaths left in the wake of the 2003 heat wave.

Patents

- Carrier, H. W., -- "Apparatus for treating air" -- January 2, 1906

External links

Operation

- [http://www.howstuffworks.com/ac.htm How Air Conditioners Work] Article by HowStuffWorks

Servicing Information

- [http://www.nasw.org/users/davidt/files/trouble1.html Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Troubleshooting Guide]
- [http://www.repairclinic.com/0088_16_3.asp How Air Conditioners Work] Article by RepairClinic
- [http://www.allhvacinfo.com/Contractors_Residential_Air_Conditioning/Contractors_Residential_Air_Conditioning.htm Directory of Air Conditioning Contractors]
- [http://www.northernhvac.com/newcalc.htm Free online HVAC heat load calculator]

Energy Efficiency

- [http://www.aceee.org/ ACEEE] (USA)
- [http://www.aceee.org/consumerguide/aircon.htm ACEEE - Consumer Guide to Home Energy Savings (Air Conditioning)]
- [http://www.aceee.org/new/eedb.htm ACEEE - Energy Efficiency Program Database]
- [http://www.aceee.org/consumerguide/topcac.htm ACEEE - Top-Rated Energy-Efficient Central Air Conditioners]
- [http://www.eere.energy.gov/ U.S DoE Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy] (USA)
- [http://www.eere.energy.gov/consumerinfo/factsheets/aircond.html U.S DoE EERE - Energy-Efficient Air Conditioning]
- [http://www.energystar.gov/ Energy Star] (USA)
- [http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=cac.pr_central_ac Energy Star - Central Air Conditioners]
- [http://www.powerwater.com.au/ PowerWater] (Australia)
- [http://www.powerwater.com.au/powerwater/factsheets/airconditioners.html PowerWater - Energy Efficient Air Conditioners]
- [http://www.eca.gov.uk UK Enhanced Capital Allowance Scheme (ECA)] UK Government scheme to provide tax rebates for companies who use products which are ECA approved
- [http://doityourself.com/appliance/majors.htm Understanding Energy Efficient Ratings]
- [http://doityourself.com/aircond/index.shtml How to lower the energy usage of central air conditioning]

Brands

- [http://www.aeg.de/ AEG]
- [http://www.aircon4less.co.uk/ Aircon]
- [http://www.americanstandardair.com/ American Standard]
- [http://www.ariagel.it/ Ariagel]
- [http://www.bryant.com/ Bryant]
- [http://www.residential.carrier.com Carrier]
- [http://www.colemanac.com/ Coleman]
- [http://www.crafft.com/ Crafft]
- [http://www.daikin.com/ Daikin]
- [http://www.ge.com/en/ GE]
- [http://www.goettl.com/ Goettl]
- [http://www.goodmanmfg.com/ Goodman]
- [http://www.lennox.com/default.asp Lennox]
- [http://www.lgaircon.co.uk/ LG] (UK Site)
- [http://global.mitsubishielectric.com/bu/air/index.html Mitsubishi Electric]
- [http://www.mhi.co.jp/aircon/english/index.htm Mitsubishi Heavy Industries]
- [http://www.rheemac.com/ Rheem]
- [http://www.ruudac.com/ Ruud]
- Sanyo
- [http://www.thermoking.com/ Thermo King]
- [http://www.trane.com/Residential/ResidentialHome.aspx Trane]
- [http://www.videoconinternational.com/ Videocon International]
- [http://www.waterloo.co.uk/ Waterloo Air Products Ltd.] Category:Home appliances Category:Cooling technology ja:空気調和設備

Dining car

Restaurant#Specific types of restaurant

Train ferry

can be seen at the bottom of the photograph.]] A train ferry is a ship designed to carry railway vehicles. Typically, one level of the ship is fitted with railway tracks, and the ship has a door at the front or rear to give access to the wharves. The wharf (called a "slip") has a ramp which connects the railway proper to the ship, allowing for the water level to rise and fall with the tides. For an example of a specialized slip to receive railcars see ferry slip. While railway vehicles can and are shipped on the decks or in the holds of ordinary ships, purpose-built train ferries are much quicker to load and unload, especially as several vehicles can be loaded or unloaded at once.

Examples

Australia

- Grafton, New South Wales over Clarence River pending construction of bridge, 1920s to 1930s
- The Port Lincoln division is isolated from the main system by desert and is very roundabout, and rolling stock is transferred as required by ship or by road low loaders.

Canada

- Newfoundland - Canada
- Prince Edward Island - Canada
- Vancouver Island - Canada

China

- Zhanjiang, Guangdong and Haikou, Hainan

Denmark

- Copenhagen, Denmark to Rodby with train ferry over the Fehmarn Belt to Puttgarten, Germany and then continuing to Hamburg. Route opened 1960, and runs 6 trains/day from Copenhagen.

Georgia

- Russia to Georgia bypasses Abkhazia

Italy

- Mainland to Sicily

Japan

Japan Railways would have had train ferries to link up the main islands before these were replaced by bridges and tunnels.

New Zealand

- North Island to South Island - 2 ferries - proposal to build new South Island terminal to reduce ferry distance and time.

Norway

- Some fjords are bridged by train ferries, including the siding to the Hydro-Norsk deuterium factory, as seen in the movie The Heroes of Telemark, starring Kirk Douglas. See Today's Railways #113.

Sweden

- Malmö, Sweden and Berlin, Germany 1 train/day

Turkey

- Lake Van - will be replaced by railway along lake shore when traffic increases enough.
- Bosphorus - bids called in 2005 to replace with tunnel.
- Black Sea - Ilyichevsk, Ukraine to Derince, Turkey by passes a break of gauge

Ukraine

- Black Sea - see above

United Kingdom

- Dover to Dunquerque, France - replaced by the Channel Tunnel

United States

- New York Cross Harbor Railroad, transferring freight cars between Jersey City, New Jersey, and Brooklyn, New York, run as needed. This ferry is operated, as rail cars with flammable and hazardous materials are not permitted in the former Pennsylvania Railroad tunnels under Manhattan and the Hudson River.
- The Alaska Railroad is only connected to the rest of the North American rail system via train ferries. The Alaska Railroad runs its own ferries from Whittier, Alaska to Seattle, Washington, and the Canadian National Railway operates its AquaTrain between Whittier and Prince Rupert, British Columbia.
- Frankfurt, Lake Michigan - defunct
- The S. S. Badger, which was originally built as a year-round train ferry across Lake Michigan for the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad in 1953 is now used as a car ferry between Manitowoc, Wisconsin, and Ludington, Michigan.
- The S.S. City of Milwaukee, built in 1931 for the Grand Trunk Western Railroad. [http://www.carferry.com]
- Mackinac Ferry the Chief Wawatam ([http://www.carferries.com/chief/ carferries.com]) at the Straits of Mackinac connecting Michigan's Upper Peninsula and Lower Peninsula.
- Chesapeake Bay - Eastern Shore Railroad from Norfolk, VA to Cape Charles, VA

Portage railways

The opposite of a train ferry is a portage railway.
- A train ferry overcomes a lack of a land link.
- A portage railway overcomes a lack of a navigatable stretch of a river. For example, before the Panama canal, the Panama Railway provided a link between the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean.

Hazards of train ferries

While no train ferries (as far as it is known) have met with disaster at sea, car ferries such as the Herald of Free Enterprise, which share some of the weaknesses of train ferries, have met with disaster. These weaknesses include:
- Trains are loaded at a rather high level, making the ship top heavy.
- The train deck is difficult to compartmentalise, so that sloshing flood water can destabilise the ship.
- The sea doors where the trains go in and out are a weakness, even if placed at the rear of the ship.
- The train carriages need to be strongly secured lest they break away and roll around. A number of railroad carferries have been lost on the Great Lakes. These losses, though causes remain unconfirmed, were attributed to seas boarding the unprotected stern of the ship and swamping it in a severe storm. As a result, seagates were required on all new ships and required to be retrofitted on older vessels. In addition, two wooden crosslake railroad ferries burned.

FinlanD

Finland.

Haparanda

Haparanda Municipality is a Swedish municipality in Norrbotten County, in northern Sweden. Its seat is in the town Haparanda with 4,700 inhabitants.

Geography

In Sweden, Haparanda border to the municipalities of Övertorneå to the north and Kalix to the west. Haparanda is located on the western side of where the Torne River discharges into the Gulf of Bothnia. On the other side of the river lies the Finn town Tornio (or Torneå in Swedish). Haparanda and Tornio have a treaty of twin towering, and call themselves EuroCity.

History

When Sweden lost Finland in 1809, the borders were drawn along the rivers of Tornio and Muonio, thus separating Tornio and Haparanda between a national border. The relationships between the neighbouring towns have however always been friendly. Haparanda was made a city of merchancy (köping) in 1821, and received its charted in 1842. An IKEA department store will open in the town in the winter 2006/2007, and will become the northernmost IKEA store in the world.

External links

- [http://www.haparanda.se Haparanda] - Official site
- [http://www.haparandatornio.com/ Haparanda - Tornio] Official Tourism Site Category:Municipalities of Sweden Category:Municipalities of Norrbotten County Category:Meänkieli language municipalities

Sweden

The Kingdom of Sweden (Swedish: ) is a Nordic country in Scandinavia, in Northern Europe. It is bordered by Norway on the west, Finland on the northeast, the Skagerrak Strait and the Kattegat Strait on the southwest, and the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia on the east. Sweden has a low population density except in its metropolitan areas, with most of the inland consisting of forests and mountainous wilderness. Following the decline of the Viking Age, Sweden spent a couple of centuries fighting with its neighbouring countries Denmark (from the 12th century 1710), and Norway (in the 16th and 17th century). In the 17th and 18th centuries Sweden extended its territory through warfare and became a Great Power, twice its current size. The extended territory was subsequently lost within a century. Since 1814, Sweden has been at peace, adopting a policy of keeping free of alliances. Sweden was one of the poorest countries in Europe in the 19th century, shaped by heavy alcohol consumption, until improved transportation and communication allowed it to utilize natural assets from different parts of the country, most notably timber and iron ore, which allowed the creation of a welfare state in the early 20th century. Today, the country is defined by liberal tendencies and a strong national quest for equality, and usually ranks among the top nations in the UN Human Development Index.

History

Pre-history

For details, see: Prehistoric Sweden Soon after the recession of the last ice age, Sweden became populated by hunters and gatherers, during the Stone Age (6000 BC – 4000 BC). The region developed rather slowly compared to southern Europe; while the Romans wrote poetry, Scandinavia had just entered the Iron Age. Sweden was first mentioned in the 1st century, by Roman historian Tacitus, who wrote that the Suiones tribe lived out in the sea and were powerful in both arms and ships. This referred to the inhabitants of eastern Sweden: Svealand, primarily around lake Mälaren; towns of Stockholm, Sigtuna, and Birka. From this tribe, Sweden derived its name. The southern parts, on the other hand, were inhabited by Geats (Götar) in the Götaland territory. Little is known for certain about that time, but chronicles based on Norse sagas and the Beowulf epos go back about 2,000 years. During the Viking Age of the 9th and 10th century, Swedish vikings travelled east setting its mark on the Baltic countries, Russia, the Black Sea, further through the rivers of Russia down south to Constantinople and southern Europe.

Middle Ages

For details, see: Early Swedish history and Foundation of Modern Sweden With Christianization in the 12th century, the country became consolidated, with its centre in the water-ways of the northern Baltic and the Gulf of Finland. In the 14th century Sweden, like the rest of Europe, was struck by the Black Death (the Plague), with all its effect. During the middle ages, the expansion of Sweden into the northern wilderness of Laplandia, the Scandinavian peninsula, and present-day Finland continued. Finland was a part of Sweden proper from 1362 until 1809. In 1389, Norway, Denmark and Sweden were united under a single monarch in a treaty known as the Kalmar Union. After several wars and disputes between these nations, King Gustav I of Sweden (House of Vasa) broke free in 1521 and established a nation state, considered the foundation of modern Sweden. Shortly afterwards he rejected Catholicism and led Sweden to the Protestant Reformation. Gustav I is considered to be Sweden's "Father of the Nation". He was the first monarch from the House of Vasa. The House of Vasa also ruled between 1587 and 1668 in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Between 1592 and 1599 Sweden and Poland were ruled in a personal union by Sigismund I Vasa.

A major power

Sigismund I Vasa (orange) overlayed by present day Sweden (red)]] For details, see: Rise of Sweden as a Great Power, Swedish Empire, Sweden and the Great Northern War, Absolute Monarchy in Sweden, Sweden-Finland and Union between Sweden and Norway The 17th century saw the rise of Sweden as one of the great powers in Europe, due to successful participation, initiated by King Gustav II Adolph, in the Thirty Years' War and by Charles X Gustav of Sweden in the The Deluge of Poland. Mighty as it was, it crumbled in the 18th century with Imperial Russia taking the reins of northern Europe in the Great Northern War, and finally in 1809 when the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland was created out of the eastern half of Sweden. After Denmark was defeated in the Napoleonic wars, Norway was ceded to Sweden in the Treaty of Kiel. This led to the Campaign against Norway, which was fought in 1814, and ended with the Convention of Moss, which forced Norway into a union with Sweden that was not dissolved until 1905. But the campaign also signified the last of the Swedish wars and its 200 years of peace are arguably unique in the world today.

Modern history

For details, see: Modernization of Sweden The 19th century saw a significant population increase, generally attributed to peace, vaccination, and potatoes, doubling the population from 1750 to 1850. Many people in the countryside, where most Swedes lived, found themselves unemployed. The result was poverty, alcoholism, and massive emigration; it is believed that between 1850 and 1910 more than one million Swedes moved to the United States alone. In the early 20th century, more Swedes lived in Chicago than in Sweden's second biggest city, Gothenburg. However, as the Industrial revolution progressed during the century, people gradually began moving into cities to work in factories, and became involved in Socialistic unions. A threatening Socialist revolution was avoided in 1917, following the re-introduction of Parliamentarism, and the country was democratized.

Recent history

For details, see: Industrialization of Sweden and Sweden during World War II
Sweden remained neutral during World War I and World War II, although its neutrality during World War II has been disputed. Sweden was part of the Marshall aid package but continued to stay non-aligned during the Cold War, and is still not a member of any military alliance. Following the second World War, Sweden made use of its natural resources and undemolished state, making it possible to expand its industry to supply the rebuilding of Europe, leading it to be one of the richest countries in the world by 1960. During most of the post-war era, the country was ruled by the Swedish Social Democratic Party that established a welfare state, striving for a "well being for all"-policy. As other economies were re-established, Sweden was surpassed in the 1970s, and had to adjust its politics in the 1990s, but still ranks among the top nations concerning well being of its inhabitants.

Politics

Sweden has been a monarchy for almost a millennium, with its taxation controlled by the Riksdag (parliament). It consisted of four chambers, made up by representatives from the 4 estates: clerics, nobility, townsmen and peasants, until 1866 when Sweden became a Constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parliament. Its First Chamber was indirectly elected by local governments, and the Second Chamber directly elected in national elections every four years. local government Legislative power was (symbolically) shared between king and parliament until 1975. In 1971 the Riksdag became unicameral. Constitutionally, the 349-member Riksdag holds supreme authority in Sweden, and its acts are not subject to judicial review. Acts of the parliament must be made inapplicable at every level if they are obviously against constitutional laws. Legislation may be initiated by the Cabinet or by members of Parliament. Members are elected on the basis of proportional representation for a four-year term. The Constitution of Sweden can be altered by the Riksdag, which requires a supermajority and confirmation after the following general elections. Sweden has three other constitutional laws: the Act of Royal Succession, the Freedom of Press Act and the Fundamental Law on Freedom of Expression. Executive power was shared between the King and a noble Privy Council until 1680, followed by the King's autocratic rule initiated by the common estates of the Parliament. As a reaction to the failed Great Northern War, Parliamentarism was introduced in 1719, followed by three different flavours of Constitutional Monarchy in 1772, 1789 and 1809, the latter granting several civil liberties. The monarch remains as the formal, but merely symbolic head of state with ceremonial duties. Social Democracy has played a dominant political role since 1917, after Reformists had confirmed their strength and the revolutionaries left the party. After 1956, the Cabinets have been dominated by the Social Democrats. Only three general elections have given the centre-right bloc enough seats in Parliament to form a government. It is considered the reason for the Swedish post-war welfare state, with a government expenditure of slightly more than 50% of the gross domestic product. Some Swedish political figures that have received worldwide recognition include Joe Hill, Raoul Wallenberg, Dag Hammarskjöld, Olof Palme and Hans Blix.

Energy politics

For details, see Nuclear power phase-out After the 1973 oil crisis, the energy politics were determined to become less dependent on the import of petroleum. Since then, energy has been generated mostly from hydropower and nuclear power. Accidents at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station (USA) prompted the Swedish parliament in 1980 after a referendum to decide that no further nuclear power plants should be built and that a nuclear power phase-out should be completed by 2010. As of 2005, the use of renewables amounted to 26 per cent of the energy supply in Sweden, most important being hydropower and biomass. In 1998, electricity from hydropower accounted for 76 TWh and 48 per cent of the country's production of electricity. At the same time, the use of biofuels, peat etc. produced 92TWh. [http://www.scientific-alliance.org/pdf/essential_programme_to_underpin_government_policy_on_nuclear_power.pdf] (PDF file) In March 2005, an opinion poll with 1027 persons asked, showed 83 per cent support for maintaining or increasing nuclear power [http://www.uic.com.au/nip39.htm]. Since then however, reports about radioactive leakages at a nuclear waste store in Forsmark, Sweden, have been published [http://www.forbes.com/finance/feeds/afx/2005/06/29/afx2116521.html]. This doesn't seem to have changed the public support of continued use of nuclear power.

Economy

PDF] The standard of living has become enviably high under this social democratic system. It features a modern distribution system, excellent internal and external communications, and a skilled labour force. Timber, hydropower, and iron ore constitute the resource base of an economy heavily oriented toward foreign trade. The engineering sector accounts for 50% of output and exports. The public and the trade unions controlled pension funds, non-profit organizations and the reserve funds of the trade-unions owns more than 50% of Sweden capital. 80% of the workforce is organized through the trade-unions. The public sector accounts for 53% of the GDP. Trade unions have the right to elect two representatives to the board in all Swedish companies with more than 25 employees. Agriculture accounts for only 2% of GDP and 2% of the jobs. The government's commitment to fiscal discipline resulted in a substantial budgetary surplus in 2001, which was cut by more than half in 2002, due to the global economic slowdown, revenue declines, and spending increases. The Swedish Riksbank is focusing on price stability with its inflation target of 2%. Growth is expected to reach 3.5% in 2004, assuming a continued moderate global recovery. However, open unemployment has steadily increased since 2001 and stood at 5.6% as of October 2005. Counting everyone who neither studies full-time or has employment, the percentage is around 14% (peaking at 20% in the summer months) . Sweden is known for having an uneven distribution of income, where the income in major towns are higher than in the countryside. Sweden's communication and transportation systems are important components of the infrastructure.

Welfare state

:For details, see Social welfare in Sweden What is known as [http://www.lysator.liu.se/nordic/scn/faq28.html The Scandinavian Model], is usually described as a mean way between socialism and capitalism and has been labelled the most developed form of capitalism. The government provides for childcare, maternity and paternity leave, a ceiling on health care costs, free education (all levels), retirement pensions, free dental care up to 20 years of age and sick leave (partly payed by the employer). Parents are entitled to a total of 480 days partly paid leave between birth and the child's eighth birthday, with 60 days reserved specifically for each parent, in effect providing the father with a so called "daddy-month". In addition, the ceiling on health care costs makes it easier, relative to other nations, for Swedish workers to take time off for medical reasons. The Swedish welfare system remains generous, but a recession in the 1990s forced an introduction of a number of reforms, such as education vouchers in 1992 and decentralisation of some types of healthcare services to municipal control. [http://fcpp.org/main/publication_detail.php?PubID=814] The welfare state requires high taxes, but the population is generally affirmative of this. Sweden has a two step progressive tax scale with a municipal income tax of about 30% and a high income state tax of about 50% that kicks in when you earn more than about 300 000 SEK. The employing company pays an additional 32% of so called Employers fee. In addition, a national VAT of 25% is added to many things bought by private citizens except food (12% VAT), transports and books (6% VAT) with the exception of petrol/diesel which is under heavy taxation.
Education
As part of its social welfare system, Sweden provides an extensive childcare system that guarantees a place for all young children from 1-5 years old in a public day-care facility. Between ages 6-16, children attend compulsory comprehensive school. After completing the ninth grade, 90% continue with a three year upper secondary school leading sometimes to an exam in a technical profession and always to the qualifications for further studies at a university college (högskola) or university.
Geography
university college (högskola) or university] university college (högskola) or university university college (högskola) or university in northern Norrland]] Norrland in northern Götaland]] Götaland]] Götaland Götaland]] Sweden enjoys a mostly temperate climate despite its northern latitude, mainly due to the Gulf Stream. In the south of Sweden leaf-bearing trees are prolific, in the north pines and hardy birches dominate the landscape. In the mountains of northern Sweden a sub-Arctic climate predominates. North of the Arctic Circle, the sun never sets for part of each summer, and in the winter, night is unending for a corresponding period. East of Sweden is the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia, providing a long coastline, and mellowing the climate further yet. To the west is the Scandinavian mountain chain, a range that separates Sweden from Norway. The southern part of the country is chiefly agricultural, with forests covering a larger percentage of the land the further north one goes. Population density is also higher in southern Sweden, with centres being in the valley of lake Mälaren and the Öresund region. Gotland and Öland are the two largest Islands of Sweden.
Counties
For details, see: Counties of Sweden Sweden is divided into 21 counties or län. They are Stockholm County, Uppsala County, Södermanland County, Östergötland County, Jönköping County, Kronoberg County, Kalmar County, Gotland County, Blekinge County, Skåne County, Halland County, Västra Götaland County, Värmland County, Örebro County, Västmanland County, Dalarna County, Gävleborg County, Västernorrland County, Jämtland County, Västerbotten County and Norrbotten County. Each has a County Administrative Board or länsstyrelse which is appointed by the Government. In each county there is also a separate County Council or landsting, which is the municipal representation appointed by the county electorate. Each county further divides into a number of municipalities or kommuner, making a total of 290 municipalities, in 2004. There are also older historical divisions of Sweden, primarily into provinces and lands.
Largest cities
Denotes inhabitants in the municipality (kommun) area. Area is in km². The figures are as of 2005. Detailed list at List of municipalities of Sweden by population.
Demographics
For details, see: Demographics of Sweden Sweden has one of the world's highest life expectancies. As of approximately 12 August 2004, the total population of Sweden for the first time exceeded 9,000,000, according to Statistics Sweden. The country's population includes some 17,000 indigenous Samis. Some 50,000 of the ethnic Finns of Sweden also constitute an indigenous minority, although many more of the Sweden Finns descend from 20th century immigrants. Sweden has been transformed from a nation of emigration ending after World War I to a nation of immigration from World War II onwards. Currently, almost 12% of the residents are born abroad, and about one fifth of Sweden's population are either immigrants or the children of immigrants. The largest immigrant groups are from Finland, the

EuroCity

Criteria

Other uses

Train

Types of trains

Motive power

Passenger trains

See also

Freight trains

Famous train routes

Fictional trains

See also

Further reading

External links

Inter-city rail

Europe

United States

Australia

See also

Intercity

Europe

United States

Australia

See also

Schengen treaty

Membership and implementation

Membership

Exceptions

Implementation

Treaty provisions

Schengen and the European Union

Gaining entry

External links

Air-conditioned

Types of air conditioning

Refrigeration cycle

Humidity

Refrigerants

Evaporation coolers

Absorptive chillers

Power

Insulation

Home air conditioning systems around the world

See also

Patents

External links

Operation

Servicing Information

Energy Efficiency

Brands

Dining car

Train ferry

Examples

Australia

Canada

China

Denmark

Georgia

Italy

Japan

New Zealand

Norway

Sweden

Turkey

Ukraine

United Kingdom

United States

Portage railways

Hazards of train ferries

See also

FinlanD

Haparanda

Geography

History

See also

External links

Sweden

History

Pre-history

Middle Ages