:: wikimiki.org ::

Donner Lake

Donner Lake

Donner Lake is a freshwater lake quite smaller than nearby Lake Tahoe. A moraine serves as a natural dam for the lake. It is located in the town of Truckee in northeastern California. It is sandwiched between Interstate 80 to the north and an Amtrak railroad station to the south. It is named after the unfortunate Donner Party, which spent its fateful winter near the lake in 1846. Category:Lakes of California

Lake

A Lake is a body of water surrounded by land. The majority of lakes are fresh water, and most lie in the northern hemisphere at higher latitudes. Large lakes are sometimes referred to as "inland seas" and small seas are sometimes referred to as lakes. The term lake is also used to describe a feature such as Lake Eyre, which is dry most of the time but becomes filled under seasonal conditions of heavy rainfall. Many lakes are artificial and are constructed for hydro-electric power supply, recreation (swimming, wind surfing,...), water supply, etc. Finland is known as The Land of the Thousands Lakes (actually there are 187,888 lakes in Finland, 60,000 of them are big ones) and Minnesota is known as The Land of Ten Thousand Lakes. The Great Lakes of North America originated in the ice age. Over 60% of the world's lakes are in Canada; this is because of the deranged drainage system that dominates the country.

Origin of natural lakes

Most lakes are young, as the natural results of erosion will tend to wear away one of the basin sides containing the lake. There are a number of natural processes that can form lakes. A recent tectonic uplift of a mountain range can create bowl-shaped depressions that accumulate water and form lakes. The advance and retreat of glaciers can scrape depressions in the surface where lakes accumulate. Such lakes are common in Scandinavia, Siberia and Canada. Lakes can also form by means of landslides or by glacial blockages. An example of the latter occurred during the last ice age in the state of Washington, when a huge lake formed behind a glacial flow. When the ice retreated, the result was an immense flood that created the Dry Falls Monument at Sun Lakes, Washington. Saline lakes can form where there is no natural outlet or the water evaporates rapidly, and the drainage surface of the water table has a higher than normal salt content. Examples of salt lakes include the Great Salt Lake, the Caspian Sea and the Dead Sea. Small, crescent-shaped lakes called oxbow lakes can form in river valleys as the result of meandering. The slow-moving river forms a sinuous shape as the outer side of bends is torn away more rapidly than the inner side. Eventually a horseshoe bend is formed and the river cuts through the narrow neck. This gap now forms the main passage for the river and the ends of the bend become silted up. Lake Vostok is an under-ice lake in Antarctica, possibly the largest in the world. The pressure from ice and the internal chemical composition means that if the lake were drilled into, it may result in a fissure and spraying in the same manner as a shaken can of soda. Some lakes, like Lake Baikal and Lake Tanganyika are volcanic in origin, and lie on geological fault lines. The Crater Lake in Oregon is a lake located within the caldera of an extinct volcano. Some lakes come into existence as a result of sinkhole activity.

Characteristics

The change in level of a lake is controlled by the difference between the sources of inflow and outflow, compared to the total volume of the lake. The significant input sources are precipitation onto the lake; runoff carried by streams and channels from the lake's catchment area; groundwater channels and aquifers, and man-made sources from outside the catchment area. Output sources are evaporation from the lake; surface and groundwater flows, and any extraction of lake water by humans. As climate conditions and human water requirements vary, these will create fluctuations in the lake level. Lakes can be categorized on the basis of their richness of nutrients, which typically effects plant growth. Nutrient poor lakes are said to be oligotrophic, and are generally clear, having a low concentration of plant life. Mesotropic lakes have good clarity and an average level of nutrients. Eutrophic lakes are enriched with nutrients, resulting in good plant growth and possible algal blooms. A hypertrophic lake is a water body that has been highly enriched with nutrients. These lakes typically have poor clarity and are subject to algal blooms. Lakes typically reach this condition due to human activities, such as heavy use of fertilizers in the lake catchment area. Such lakes are of little use, and have a poor ecosystem.

Types of lakes

A periglacial lake is one in which part of its margin is formed by an ice sheet, ice cap or glacier, the ice having obstructed the natural drainage of the land. A subglacial lake is one which is permanently covered by ice. They can occur under glaciers and ice caps or ice sheets. There are many such lakes, but Lake Vostok in Antarctica is by far the largest. The are kept liquid because the overlying ice acts as a thermal insulator retaining energy introduced to its underside by friction, water percolating through crevasses, by the pressure from the mass of the ice sheet above or by geothermal heating below. Because of the unusual relationship between water's temperature and its density, the water in lakes in temperate climates mixes twice a year. Fresh water is most dense at about 4 degrees Celsius. When the temperature of the water at the surface of a lake reaches the temperature at which water is most dense all the water in the lake can mix, bringing oxygen starved water up from the depths, and bringing oxygen down to decomposing sediments. When the density of surface water differs from that of the deeper water there is a marked barrier layer, the thermocline, that prevents mixing. Deep Temperate lakes can maintain a reservoir of cold water year-round. The reservoir of deep, cold water allows cities to tap that reservoir for deep lake water cooling. Since the water of deep tropical lakes never reaches the temperature where water reaches its maximum density, there is no process that makes the water mix. The deeper layer becomes oxygen starved, and can become saturated with carbon dioxide, and possibly other gases, like sulfur dioxide, if there is even a trace of volcanic activity. Exceptional events, like earthquakes or landslides, which do cause mixing, that brings up the deep layers, can release a vast cloud of toxic gas. The amount of gas that can be dissolved in water is pressure related. As the water surfaces, and the pressure drops, a vast amount of gas cab comes out of solution. Under these circumstances even carbon dioxide is toxic. Carbon dioxide is heavier than air, and the released carbon dioxide flows down the river valley.

Artificial lakes

A reservoir (French: réservoir) is an artificial lake created by flooding land behind a dam. Some of the world's largest lakes are reservoirs. Artificial lakes can also be made deliberately by digging one or by flooding an open-pit mine.

Abiotic and biotic limnology

mine Limnology divides lakes in three zones: littoral zone, which is a sloped area that is close to land; open-water zone, where sunlight is abundant; and deep-water zone, where little sunlight can reach. The depth which light can reach in lakes depends on the density and motion of particles. These particles can be sedimentary or biological in origin and are responsible for the color of the water. Decaying plant matter for instance is responsible for a yellow or brown color, while algae result in greenish water. In very shallow water bodies, iron oxides make water reddish brown. Biological particles are algae and detritus. A sediment particle is in suspension if its weight is less than the random turbidity forces acting upon it. The turbidity is a decisive factor in the transparency of the water. Bottom-dwelling detritivorous fish are responsible for turbid waters, because they stir the mud in search for food. Piscivorous fish eat plant-eating (planktonivorous) fish, thus increasing the number of algae (see aquatic trophic cascade). The light depth or transparency is measured by using a Secchi disk. This is a 20 cm disk with alternating white and black quadrants. The depth at which the disk is no longer visible, is the Secchi depth, and is a measure for transparency. It is commonly used to test eutrophication. A lake moderates the surrounding region's temperature and climate because water has a very high specific heat capacity (4186). In the daytime, the lake can cool the land beside it with local winds, resulting in a sea breeze; in the night, it can warm it, forming a land breeze.

How lakes disappear

A lake may be infilled with deposited sediment, and gradually, the lake becomes a wetland, such as a swamp or marsh. An important difference exists between lowland and highland lakes: lowland lakes are more placid, are less rocky/more sedimentary, have a less sloping bottom, and generally contain more plant life. Large water plants (typically reeds) accelerate this closing process significantly because they trap sediment. Turbid lakes, and lakes with much plant-eating fish, tend to disappear slower. A "disappearing" lake (barely noticeable on a human timescale) typically has a water's edge with extensive plant mats. They become a new habitat for other plants (like peat moss, when conditions are right) and animals, many of which are very rare. Gradually, the lake closes, and young peat may form, forming a fen. In lowland river valleys (allowing the river to meander), the presence of peat is explained by the closing of historical oxbow lakes. In the very last stages of succession, more trees would grow in, eventually turning the wetland into a forest. Some lakes can also disappear seasonally; they are called Intermittent lakes and are typical of karstic terrain. A prime example of this is Lake Cerknica in Slovenia. On June 3, 2005 in Bolotnikovo, Russia, a lake called White Lake vanished in a short period of time (minutes). News sources reported government officials theorized that this strange phenomena may have been caused by a shift on soil underneath the lake which drained water to channels leading to Oka River. Neusiedler See, located in Austria and Hungary, dried up several times for a of number years during the past centuries. As of 2005, it is again rapidly losing water, giving rise to the fear that it will be completely dried up by 2010.

Extraterrestrial lakes

At present the surface of the planet Mars is too cold to permit pooling of liquid water on the surface. However geologic evidence appears to confirm that ancient lakes once formed on the surface. It is also possible that volcanic activity on Mars will occasionally melt the subsurface ice, forming large lakes. Under current conditions this water will quickly evaporate or freeze unless insulated in some manner, such as by a coating of volcanic ash. Jupiter's small moon Io is volcanically active due to tidal stresses, and as a result sulfur deposits have accumulated on the surface. Some photographs taken during the Galileo mission appear to show lakes of liquid sulfur on the surface. There are dark basaltic plains on the Moon, similar to lunar maria but smaller, that are called lacus (singular lacus, Latin for "lake"). They were once thought by early astronomers to be literal lakes.

Notable lakes

- The largest lake in the world by surface area is the Caspian Sea. With a surface area of 394,299 sq. km., it has a surface area greater than the next six largest lakes combined.
- The largest freshwater lake, and second largest lake altogether is Lake Superior with a surface area of 82,414 sq. km. It is also the largest lake in North America and is a part of the Great Lakes.
- The deepest lake is Lake Baikal in Siberia, with a bottom at 1,741 m (5,712 ft.) and is the world's largest freshwater lake by volume.
- The highest navigable lake is lake Titicaca, at 3821 m above sea level. It is also the second largest lake in South America.
- The world's highest lake is Lhagba Pool in Tibet at 6,368 m.
- The world's lowest lake is the Dead Sea, at 396 m (1,302 ft.) below sea level. It is also the lake with the highest salt concentration.
- The largest freshwater-lake island is Manitoulin Island on Lake Huron, with a surface area of 2,766 square km.
- The largest lake located on an island is Nettilling Lake on Baffin Island.
- Lake Toba on the island of Sumatra is located in what is probably the largest resurgent caldera on Earth.
- The largest freshwater lake in Europe is Lake Balaton, followed by Lake Geneva.
- Lake Victoria is the largest lake in Africa. It is a part of the Great Lakes of Africa.
- Lake Maracaibo is the largest lake in South America. Lake Titicaca is the largest freshwater lake in South America.
- The largest lake located completely within the boundaries of a single city is Lake Wanapitei in the city of Greater Sudbury, Ontario, Canada. Before the current city boundaries came into effect in 2001, this status was held by Lake Ramsey, also in Sudbury.
- Saimaa is the largest lake in Finland (the land of 187,888 lakes).

External links

- [http://www.highestlake.com/ Lists of the highest lakes in the US and the world]
- [http://www.mlswa.org/lkclassif1.htm Lake Classification Systems]
- [http://www.uklakes.net/ UKLakes Database]
- [http://www.midwestlakes.org/ Midwest Lakes Policy Center] Category:Bodies of water Category:Landforms ko:호수 ja:湖 simple:Lake th:ทะเลสาบ

Moraine

Moraine is the general term for debris of all sorts originally transported by glaciers or ice sheets that have since melted away. The following are commonly recognized types of moraine: glacier
- Lateral moraine: The talus and other material from the sides of a glacial valley accumulated on the glacier and carried along with it. The mass of debris distributed along the lateral edges of the glacier are thus called lateral moraine. In the case of valley glaciers which have disappeared, their former existence may often be proved by the traces of lateral moraines left along the sides of the valley.
- Medial moraine: If one or more tributary glaciers coalesce with the main glacier the lateral moraines unite to form trains of debris on the surface of the glacier at or near its center, called medial moraines.
- Terminal moraine: When balance is maintained between the melting of a glacier and its forward advance, the debris carried on (superglacial), within (englacial), and dragged along the bottom (subglacial) is deposited at that point and builds up a heterogeneous mass of the transported material called the terminal moraine. If a glacier is slowly retreating and makes successive halts farther and farther up the valley, a series of terminal moraines are formed which are spoken of as recessional moraines.
- Interlobate moraine: If large glaciers and continental ice sheets advance irregularly so that their margins are lobate, when the margins retreat by melting the resulting terminal moraines of boulders, clay, and sand simulate the original interlobate shape of the glacier or glaciers, and therefore such moraines are called interlobate.
- Ground moraine: When a valley glacier melts completely away the debris carried on or within it are dropped on the valley floor, forming a deposit called ground moraine. The ground moraine from the melting of the great Pleistocene ice sheets is usually spoken of as till. till

Truckee, California

Truckee is a town located in Nevada County, California. As of the 2000 census, the town had a total population of 13,864. Truckee's population has the potential to surge to 40,000 people in less than ten years as a result of increased development of previously forested lands in areas such as Martis Valley and the CA-267 corridor. However, the majority would most likely be vacationers, which would keep Truckee's year-round population relatively the same. Interestingly enough, while Truckee residents generally do not like the plan, it is the greater Nevada County area and the Board of Supervisors who are approving the build permits.

Geography

2000Truckee is located at 39°20'32" North, 120°12'13" West (39.342163, -120.203568). According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 87.7 km² (33.8 mi²). 84.3 km² (32.5 mi²) of it is land and 3.4 km² (1.3 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 3.87% water, mostly the Truckee River, the only outlet of Lake Tahoe. Truckee was named after the Paiute chief named Truckee.[http://truckeehistory.tripod.com/history4.htm]

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there are 13,864 people, 5,149 households, and 3,563 families residing in the town. The population density is 164.5/km² (426.1/mi²). There are 9,757 housing units at an average density of 115.8/km² (299.8/mi²). The racial makeup of the town is 88.39% White, 0.25% African American, 0.59% Native American, 0.87% Asian, 0.17% Pacific Islander, 7.57% from other races, and 2.16% from two or more races. 12.79% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. There are 5,149 households out of which 37.1% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 58.2% are married couples living together, 6.7% have a female householder with no husband present, and 30.8% are non-families. 18.7% of all households are made up of individuals and 3.2% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.68 and the average family size is 3.09. In the town the population is spread out with 26.7% under the age of 18, 7.0% from 18 to 24, 36.8% from 25 to 44, 24.0% from 45 to 64, and 5.5% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 35 years. For every 100 females there are 112.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 112.0 males. The median income for a household in the town is $58,848, and the median income for a family is $62,746. Males have a median income of $38,631 versus $29,536 for females. The per capita income for the town is $26,786. 4.6% of the population and 2.8% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 5.3% of those under the age of 18 and 2.0% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

Trivia

- Truckee is where the Donner Party was snowbound and resorting to cannibalism. Many of the area's place names come from this group.
- Truckee is famous for its annual rodeo.
- Truckee is the home of Donner Lake and the Donner Memorial State Park
- Truckee grew as a railroad town. The railroad goes into downtown Truckee and the Amtrak passenger lines still stop there on the services from Chicago, Illinois to San Francisco.
- The four closest large ski resorts to Truckee are Squaw Valley, Northstar-at-Tahoe, Alpine Meadows and Sugar Bowl.
- The name Truckee originated from Chief Truckee whose Northern Paiute tribe resided in the Nevada basin. He guided many pioneers to the Summit near Donner Lake.

External links

- [http://www.townoftruckee.com/ Town of Truckee Official Website] Category:Nevada County, California Category:Towns in California

Interstate 80

] , in the San Francisco Bay Area (seen here in Berkeley, California)]] Interstate 80 is the second-longest interstate highway in the United States. It connects San Francisco, California at U.S. Highway 101 in the west to Teaneck, New Jersey at Interstate 95 in the east, just outside New York City. The highway roughly traces some historically significant travel corridors, particularly in the western U.S. These include the Oregon Trail in Nebraska and westward, the California Trail in Nevada and California, and the Lincoln Highway along portions of the route in Utah, Nevada, and California.

Length

Major cities along the route

Bolded cities are officially-designated control cities for signs.
- San Francisco, California
- Oakland, California
- Sacramento, California
- Reno, Nevada
- Elko, Nevada
- Salt Lake City, Utah
- Evanston, Wyoming
- Rock Springs, Wyoming
- Cheyenne, Wyoming
- Sidney, Nebraska
- North Platte, Nebraska
- Kearney, Nebraska
- Grand Island, Nebraska
- Lincoln, Nebraska
- Omaha, Nebraska
- Council Bluffs, Iowa
- Des Moines, Iowa
- Iowa City, Iowa
- Quad Cities, Iowa-Illinois (Davenport, Iowa)
- Peru, Illinois
- La Salle, Illinois
- Joliet, Illinois and other south suburbs of Chicago, Illinois
- Gary, Indiana
- South Bend, Indiana
- Toledo, Ohio
- South suburbs of Cleveland, Ohio
- Youngstown, Ohio
- Sharon, Pennsylvania
- North suburbs of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
- Clarion, Pennsylvania
- Du Bois, Pennsylvania
- Clearfield, Pennsylvania
- Bellefonte, Pennsylvania
- South of Williamsport, Pennsylvania
- Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania
- Hazleton, Pennsylvania
- Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania
- Delaware Water Gap, Pennsylvania
- Paterson, New Jersey
- New Jersey suburbs of New York City, New York

Intersections with other Interstates

- Interstate 505 at Vacaville, California
- Interstate 5 in Sacramento, California
- Interstate 15 in Salt Lake City, Utah. They stay joined for 3 miles into South Salt Lake, Utah
- Interstate 84 in Echo, Utah (near Coalville, Utah)
- Interstate 25 in Cheyenne, Wyoming
- Interstate 76 near Big Springs, Nebraska
- Interstate 29 in Council Bluffs, Iowa
- Interstate 35 around Des Moines, Iowa. They stay joined for 14 miles around the north and west sides of the metro area, from West Des Moines to Altoona.
- Interstate 74 in Bettendorf, Iowa
- Interstate 88 near Moline, Illinois
- Interstate 74 near Moline, Illinois
- Interstate 39 in La Salle, Illinois
- Interstate 55 in Joliet, Illinois
- Interstate 355 in New Lenox Illinois.
- Interstate 294 in Homewood, Illinois. They stay joined until Lansing, Illinois, forming part of the Tri-State Tollway.
- Interstate 94 in Lansing, Illinois. They stay joined until Lake Station, Indiana. Known as the Robert Kingery Expressway in Illinois and the Frank Borman Expressway in Indiana.
- Interstate 90 in Lake Station, Indiana. They stay joined until Elyria, Ohio. Known as the Indiana Toll Road in Indiana and the Ohio Turnpike in Ohio.
- Interstate 65 in Gary, Indiana
- Interstate 69 near Fremont, Indiana
- Interstate 75 in Toledo, Ohio
- Interstate 71 in Strongsville, Ohio
- Interstate 77 in Brecksville, Ohio
- Interstate 76 in Niles, Ohio
- Interstate 79 in Pardoe, Pennsylvania (near Mercer, Pennsylvania)
- Interstate 99 in State College, Pennsylvania
- Interstate 81 in St. Johns, Pennsylvania (near Hazleton, Pennsylvania)
- Interstate 95 in Teaneck, New Jersey ([http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Teaneck,+NJ&ll=40.851216,-73.999443&spn=0.116940,0.180038&hl=en Map])

Spur routes

- San Francisco Bay Area - I-280, I-380, I-580, I-680, I-780, I-880, I-980
- The interchange with I-580 and I-880 in Oakland is known as the MacArthur Maze
- I-280, I-380, and I-980 do not directly connect with I-80
- I-480, later California 480, once connected to I-80 near Downtown San Francisco but was demolished after the Loma Prieta earthquake
- A portion of I-580 along the Richmond-San Rafael Bridge was once designated I-180
- Cheyenne, Wyoming - I-180
- Lincoln, Nebraska - I-180
- Omaha, Nebraska - I-480, I-680
- Spur to Waterloo, Iowa - I-380
- The Quad Cities - I-280
- Spur to Hennepin, Illinois - I-180
- Toledo, Ohio - I-280
- Cleveland, Ohio - I-480
- Youngstown, Ohio - I-680
- Spur to Williamsport, Pennsylvania - I-180
- Spur to Scranton, Pennsylvania - I-380
- Spur to Newark, New Jersey - I-280

Notes

I-280 The highway reaches a maximum elevation of 8,640 feet (2,633 m) above sea level between Cheyenne and Laramie, Wyoming. Farther west in Wyoming, the interstate passes the Continental Divide twice because two lines of mountains form a closed-off basin. Among many picturesque sections of I-80 are the crossing of San Francisco Bay over the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge (toll paid westbound only), the traverse above Donner Pass and Donner Lake (near Lake Tahoe) in California, and its run along the Truckee River both west and east of Reno, Nevada. Interstate 80 crosses the southern end of Great Salt Lake west of Salt Lake City, Utah, providing views of various mountains, although it incorporates a very long stretch of straight roadway that can induce some drivers to fall asleep. I-80 intersects I-90 near Elyria, Ohio and they share a route all the way to Portage, Indiana, where I-90 splits off but I-80 then runs concurrently with I-94 until the Chicago suburb of South Holland, Illinois. I-80 then runs concurrently with I-294 until Markham, Illinois. All of I-80 in Indiana is duplexed with another interstate, such as I-90 or I-94. Although Interstate 80 does not enter Colorado, it does manage to come within a mile of the border between Nebraska and Colorado at the junction of Interstates 80 and 76. This intersection is visible from Colorado as one approaches it from the west on I-76. Although it never enters Michigan, Interstate 80 (with Interstate 90) lies within ten miles (16.1 km) of the Michigan state line between La Porte, Indiana and Toledo, Ohio. Looking north at the intersection of Indiana State Highway 9 and I-80, the "Welcome to Michigan" sign is visible in the distance. I-80 does not go all the way to New York City via the George Washington Bridge. Its designated end is about four miles (6.4 km) short of New York City in Teaneck, New Jersey. There, it joins and becomes designated as I-95, which does cross the bridge. The tolled section of the New Jersey Turnpike ends at exit 18, which is actually just the toll plaza at the northern terminus. The next exit on I-95 is exit 68, which is consistent with the exit structure on I-80. (The truth is that the exit numbers on this section of I-95 match the mile markers on I-95 had the Somerset Freeway been built. The fact that they are similar to what the exit numbers are on I-80 is just a coincidence.)

Related highways

Interstate 80 had five branches, the most of any interstate highway. However, because suffixes were not allowed on any Interstate (save for the I-35 freeways in Dallas-Fort Worth and Minneapolis-St. Paul), all five branches have since been renumbered. There were three branches called I-80N, and two of them were I-80S (both of which were renamed I-76). The most noticeable I-80N went from Portland, Oregon to Salt Lake City. In 1980, it was re-signed as the western half of I-84. The other two former I-80N routes were in western Iowa (near Omaha) (I-680) and Cleveland/Youngstown (incorporated by both I-480 and I-680). Part of Interstate 80 in Nebraska is known as the Blue Star Memorial Highway. Interstate 180, between San Rafael and Richmond, California, is now an extension of Interstate 580. Interstate 180 in Cheyenne, Wyoming is an interstate with traffic lights. Interstate 180 in Illinois runs south from I-80 to serve the town of Hennepin. Interstate 180 in Pennsylvania, connecting Milton, Pennsylvania with Williamsport, Pennsylvania originally had no exit numbers on its exits. Since 2002, exit numbers have been added, and the highway will eventually connect with Interstate 99 when U.S. Highway 15 is constructed to Interstate Highway standards. Interstate 280 in New Jersey connects Northern New Jersey to the New Jersey Turnpike. Interstate 280 in Toledo, Ohio serves traffic from the Ohio Turnpike to downtown Toledo, as well as traffic from points east heading toward Detroit. Interstate 280 in Iowa and Illinois, which makes up the western and southern edges of the Quad Cities. Interstate 80 makes up the northern and eastern borders; both interstates connect at the northwestern and southeastern edges (in Davenport and Colona, Illinois, respectively). Interstate 280 in California connects San Jose, California with San Francisco, California. Interstate 380 in Iowa, connecting the highway to Cedar Rapids and Waterloo. Interstate 380 in California begins at Interstate 280 in San Bruno, California and ends at the San Francisco International Airport. Interstate 380 in Pennsylvania originally was signed as Interstate 81E before 1976, and became an east-west Interstate after suffixed Interstates were dropped in the mid-1970's. In 2002, it became a north-south Interstate when Pennsylvania changed its exit numbers from a sequential system to the milepost system. In addition, the original east-west configuration began in Scranton along with Interstate 84, but has since been truncated at the I-84/I-380 interchange. Interstate 480 was a double-decker freeway that parallelled the Embarcadero in San Francisco. The freeway was damaged when the Loma Prieta Earthquake shook the San Francisco Bay Area in 1989 and was completely demolished a short time later. Interstate 480 in Nebraska and Iowa, an interstate route through Omaha and Council Bluffs to Interstate 29. Interstate 480 in Ohio serves the southern suburbs of Cleveland. The section that I-480 shares with I-271 is the only road in the United States to carry two 3-digit Interstates simultaneously. Interstate 580 is the secret name for the US 395 freeway in Reno, Nevada. Interstate 580 in Omaha, Nebraska shared a freeway with US 75. Interstate 580 in California runs from San Rafael, California across the San Francisco Bay on the Richmond-San Rafael Bridge until it reaches Interstate 5 southeast of Tracy, California. Interstate 680 in Nebraska and Iowa, which runs through western and northern Omaha before crossing the Missouri River and continuing to its connection with Interstate 80 in eastern Pottawattamie County, Iowa. Interstate 680 in California travels from Fairfield, California, to San Jose, California. Interstate 680 in Youngstown, Ohio connects I-80 to the Ohio Turnpike (I-76). Interstate 780 in California is a 6.5-mile connection from I-80 in Vallejo, California to I-680 in Benicia, California. Interstate 880 in California runs from the MacArthur Maze in Oakland to its junction with I-280 in San Jose. The road is also known in Alameda County as the Nimitz Freeway. The Cypress Structure, a two-level portion of I-880 in West Oakland, was severely damaged in the 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake. This damaged section has since been replaced by a one-level roadway in a different location. Interstate 880 was also used at one time for the current I-80 freeway passing to the west and north of Sacramento, California. I-80 once passed directly through the city along present-day freeway segments of US 50, unsigned I-305, and unsigned California 51. That route is now signed as Business Loop Interstate 80 (Sacramento). Interstate 980 in California is a short Interstate that connects I-580 and California State Highway 24 with I-880.

Major bridges on I-80

- San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge
- Fred Schwengel Memorial Bridge
- Al Zampa Bridge; the newest suspension bridge in the United States

Des Plaines River, Illinois

The I-80 bridge over the Des Plaines River is a cantilever bridge that is six lanes wide -- three lanes traveling eastbound and westbound. It is actually a fairly dangerous section of road, as the bridge is thirty feet (9.1 m) below the surrounding elevation of the highway. A pair of downhill s-curves approach the bridge, and the speed is reduced to 45 mph (70 km/h) from 65 mph (100 km/h). This catches many drivers by surprise, since for at least a hundred miles (161 km) on either side of the bridge, the road is mainly flat and straight. The bridge is located on the south side of Joliet, Illinois and connects U.S. Highway 6 and U.S. Highway 52/Illinois State Route 53.

Sources

- 2005 Rand McNally Road Atlas
- [http://www.state.nj.us/transportation/refdata/sldiag/ NJDOT] Straight Line Diagrams
- [http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/traffops/signtech/calnexus/ Cal-Nexus]
- [http://www.westernexitguide.com/ Western Exit Guide]
- [http://www.members.aol.com/utahroads/ Utah Roads]
- [http://www.rockymountainroads.com/ Rocky Mountain Roads]
- [http://www.ajfroggie.com/triskele/ Highway heaven]
- [http://iowahighways.home.mchsi.com/ Iowa Highways]
- [http://www.roadfan.com/ Roadfan.com]
- [http://www.roadgeek.org Roadgeek.org]
- [http://www.pahighways.com/ Pennsylvania Highways] 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80

Amtrak

Amtrak, is the brand name of the intercity passenger train system created on May 1, 1971 in the United States. Officially known as the National Railroad Passenger Corporation, the name Amtrak is a portmanteau of the words American travel by track. Nominally, Amtrak is an independent for-profit corporation, but all of its preferred stock is owned by the federal government, and the members of Amtrak's board of directors are appointed by the President of the United States and are subject to confirmation by the United States Senate. Some common stock is held by the private railroads which transferred their passenger service to Amtrak in 1971. Though Amtrak stock does not pay dividends and is not routinely traded, a small number of private investors have purchased Amtrak stock from its original owners. The interim president of Amtrak is David Hughes. Until November 9, 2005, David L. Gunn was president. Gunn was fired after a GAO report critical of the board's oversight was released on November 3, 2005. The current chairman of Amtrak's board is David Laney, a presidential appointee. By law, the Secretary of Transportation (currently Norman Mineta) also sits on the board, although Mineta has never attended a board meeting. Per Amtrak's authorizing legislation, there are to be seven directors forming the company's board. Aside from Laney and Mineta (or his designee), the Bush administration has only filled two other director seats. As of the date of Gunn's firing, both of those directors were recess appointments whose terms expire with the adjournment of the current session of the 109th Congress. 109th Congress

History

109th Congress, often called the "pointless arrow" or, less often but officially by Amtrak, the "inverted arrow". On July 6, 2000 Amtrak unveiled "a new logo whose shape and suggestion of movement convey the comfort and uniqueness of the rail experience." ]]

Background: pre-1971

Historically, on routes where a single railroad has had an undisputed monopoly, passenger service was as spartan and as expensive as the market and Interstate Commerce Commission regulation would bear, since such railroads had no need to advertise their freight services. But on routes where two or three railroads were in direct competition with each other for freight business, such railroads would spare no expense to make their passenger trains as fast, luxurious, and affordable as possible, because it was considered to be the most effective way of advertising their profitable freight services. As early as the 1930s, automobile travel had begun to cut into the rail passenger market, somewhat reducing economies of scale, but it was the development of the Interstate Highway System and of commercial aviation in the 1950s and 1960s that dealt the most damaging blows to rail transportation, both passenger and freight. There was little point in operating passenger trains to advertise freight service when those who made decisions about freight shipping traveled by car and by air, and when the railroads' chief competitors for that market were interstate trucking companies. Soon, the only things keeping most passenger trains running were legal obligations. Meanwhile, companies who were interested in using railroads for profitable freight traffic were looking for ways to get out of those legal obligations, and it looked like intercity passenger rail service would soon become extinct in the United States outside a few highly-populated corridors. The final blow came with the loss of railway post offices in the 1960s. The National Association of Railroad Passengers (NARP) was formed in 1967 to lobby for the continuation of passenger trains. Its lobbying efforts were hampered somewhat by Democratic opposition to any sort of subsidies to the privately-owned railroads, and Republican opposition to nationalization of the railroad industry. The proponents were aided by the fact that few in the federal government wanted to be held responsible for the seemingly-inevitable extinction of the passenger train, which most regarded as tantamount to political suicide. The urgency of the need to solve the passenger train problem was heightened by the bankruptcy filing of the Penn Central, the dominant railroad in the Northeast U.S., on June 21, 1970. Under the Rail Passenger Service Act of 1970, Congress created the National Railroad Passenger Corporation (NRPC) to subsidize and oversee the operation of intercity passenger trains. The Act provided that
- Any railroad operating intercity passenger service could contract with the NRPC, thereby joining the national system.
- Participating railroads bought into the new corporation using a formula based on their recent intercity passenger losses. The purchase price could be satisfied either by cash or rolling stock; in exchange, the railroads received Amtrak common stock.
- Any participating railroad was freed of the obligation to operate intercity passenger service after May 1, 1971, except for those services chosen by the Department of Transportation as part of a "basic system" of service and paid for by NRPC using its federal funds.
- Railroads who chose not to join the Amtrak system were required to continue operating their existing passenger service until 1975 and thenceforth had to pursue the customary ICC approval process for any discontinuance or alteration to the service. While it appeared for some time that President Nixon would veto the legislation, ultimately it was signed into law October 30, 1970. The original working brand name for NRPC was Railpax, but shortly prior to the company's assumption of intercity rail passenger operations, the name was changed to Amtrak. At the time, many Washington insiders, including President Nixon's and his aides, viewed the corporation as a face-saving way for the President and Congress to give passenger trains the one "last hurrah" demanded by the public, but expected that the NRPC would quietly disappear as a result of disinterest within a few years of its creation. However, while Amtrak's political and financial support have often been shaky, popular and political support for Amtrak has allowed it to survive long past its expected lifetime.

Early days: 1971-

At Amtrak's startup, 20 out of the 26 eligible railroads had elected to join the Amtrak system: #Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway #Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (no service until the West Virginian began September 8, 1971) #Burlington Northern Railroad #Central of Georgia Railway (has never hosted Amtrak service) #Chesapeake and Ohio Railway #Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad #Chicago and North Western Railway (never had any service) #Delaware and Hudson Railway (no Amtrak service until the Adirondack began August 6, 1974) #Grand Trunk Western Railroad (no Amtrak service until the Blue Water Limited began September 15, 1974) #Gulf, Mobile and Ohio Railroad #Illinois Central Railroad #Louisville and Nashville Railroad #Missouri Pacific Railroad #Norfolk and Western Railway (no Amtrak service until the Mountaineer began March 25, 1975) #Northwestern Pacific Railroad (has never hosted Amtrak service) #Penn Central Transportation #Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad #Seaboard Coast Line Railroad #Southern Pacific Railroad #Union Pacific Railroad The Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad, Chicago South Shore and South Bend Railroad, Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad, Georgia Railroad, Reading Company and Southern Railway continued to run their own intercity trains after the Amtrak startup date. The Alaska Railroad provided long-distance service, but was already owned by the federal government. In addition, the Canadian Pacific Railway's Atlantic, taken over by VIA Rail in 1976, crossed northern Maine until 1994. Amtrak began operations May 1, 1971 on a system of about half the size of that operated the previous day. Several major corridors, including the New York Central Railroad's Water Level Route across Ohio and the Grand Trunk Western Railroad's Chicago-Detroit line, became freight-only in favor of parallel lines. A 19-hour layover at Cincinnati was necessary for eastbound Chicago-Newport News travelers on the James Whitcomb Riley and George Washington. On the other hand, Amtrak's Coast Starlight (named November 14) was a first, running along the west coast from San Diego to Seattle, combining three separate trains operated by three railroads into one. The first timetable was compiled from former Official Guide of the Railways schedules with only minor changes. Former names were kept, and some trains were unnamed at first. By the July 12 timetable, service had returned to the Water Level Route with the Lake Shore (named November 14), and the Northeast Corridor received an Inland Route via Springfield, Massachusetts, thanks to money from New York, Ohio and Massachusetts. Due to pressure from Senator Mike Mansfield of Montana, the North Coast Hiawatha was implemented as a second route to the Pacific Northwest. The first all-new timetable was dated November 14, 1971, and included several name changes and names for most of the formerly unnamed trains. New numbers were also assigned to all trains. Another barrier, at Chicago, was broken with the Milwaukee-St. Louis Abraham Lincoln and Prairie State. The Southern joined on February 1, 1979, when its Southern Crescent became Amtrak's Crescent. The D&RGW last operated its Rio Grande Zephyr April 25, 1983, and Amtrak's San Francisco Zephyr was renamed the California Zephyr. The Zephyrs rerouting onto the scenic D&RGW was delayed by a mudslide and did not take place until July 15, 1983. The bankrupt CRI&P ran its last intercity passenger trains (the Chicago-Peoria Peoria Rocket and the Chicago-Rock Island Quad Cities Rocket) on December 31, 1978. The last Georgia Railroad mixed train was operated May 6, 1983 by the Seaboard System Railroad. The Reading Philadelphia-Newark Penn Station service stayed around into Conrail and was discontinued in 1983. CSS&SB trains still operate, now by the Northern Indiana Commuter Transportation District. Both the Reading and CSS&SB operations qualified as intercity passenger service, but were fundamentally longer-than-average distance commuter train operations. Except for the joining of routes through Oakland, California to create the continuous Coast Starlight, all Amtrak services on day one were continued from pre-Amtrak operations. The first all-new Amtrak route, in other words a route that had not been operated immediately prior to Amtrak, was the Montrealer/Washingtonian. That route was inaugurated September 29, 1972 along Boston and Maine Railroad and Canadian National Railway track that had last seen passenger service in 1966. In its original conception, Amtrak did not own any track and thus was not a true railroad. Following the bankruptcy declaration of several northeastern railroads in the early 1970s — particularly that of Penn Central, which owned and operated the Northeast Corridor, Congress passed the Railroad Revitalization and Regulatory Reform Act of 1976 to create a consolidated, federally-subsidized freight network called Conrail. As part of this legislation, the vital Northeast Corridor passenger route was transferred to Amtrak, and the corporation became a true railroad for the first time. In subsequent years, various short route segments needed for passenger operations but not for freight were transferred to Amtrak ownership. However, the majority of Amtrak's routes are hosted by private railroads, to which Amtrak pays the costs of adding its passenger trains to the freight trains of the host railroad. At the beginning in 1971, the host railroads supplied the rolling stock and operating crews. Amtrak soon purchased the best of the railroad equipment and subsequently has purchased new equipment.Today, Amtrak trains are staffed by Amtrak employees but, other than on the routes that Amtrak owns outright, are dispatched by the host railroads on whose tracks these trains operate. The fuel shortages of the mid-1970s on the nation's highways and increased air fares which also resulted in creating a renewed interest in passenger rail travel. Given that railroads use fuel very efficiently, passenger rail travel no longer seemed quite so outmoded. Consequently, Amtrak's ridership began to increase. Another rebound occurred after the September 11, 2001 attacks.
Conflicting goals
September 11, 2001 attacks] Amtrak was established to relieve railroads of their federally-mandated responsibility to transport passengers as a priority over freight. This was causing increasingly large financial losses for the railroads as the networks of federally-funded highways and airports expanded. From the outset, Amtrak was expected to pursue conflicting goals: Amtrak was supposed to continue providing a national rail passenger service in the face of significantly diminished demand while simultaneously operating as a commercial enterprise. There have been few times in history when any intercity rail passenger operation in the world has been profitable, even with respect to only its operating costs, and passenger trains have never brought in enough revenue to pay their infrastructure costs. Even highly efficient private-sector railroads such as the Norfolk and Western Railway could not earn a profit, or even recover operating expenses for passenger service. The concept of Amtrak as a for-profit business was fatally flawed before the first passenger boarded. Amtrak is in many ways dependent on freight railroads. As it owns little track, it must rely on maintenance done by the freight owners, and sometimes has to cancel service over routes taken out-of-service by the host freight railroad (as occurred recently with service to Phoenix, Arizona) or pay to maintain the tracks.
Politically-appointed leaders and congressional funding
Without a dedicated source of capital equipment and operating funding (except for competitive passenger fares and even less express income), Amtrak's continued operation has always been dependent upon the Executive and Legislative branches of the U.S. government. Both congressional funding and appointments of Amtrak's leaders are subject to political considerations, which have varied widely during its existence through seven U.S. presidencies and major shifts of power in the U.S. Congress. Because Amtrak's board and president are all political appointees, some have had little or no experience with railroads. However, Amtrak has also benefited from both highly skilled and politically-oriented leaders. For example, in 1982, former U.S. Secretary of the Navy and retired Southern Railway head W. Graham Claytor Jr. brought his naval and railroad experience to the job. Claytor had served briefly as an acting U.S. Secretary of Transportation in the cabinet of President Jimmy Carter in 1979, and came out of retirement to lead Amtrak after the disastrous financial results during the Carter administration (1977-1981). He was recruited and strongly supported by John H. Riley, an attorney who was the highly-skilled head of the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) under the Reagan Administration from 1983-1989. Secretary of Transportation Elizabeth Dole also tacitly supported Amtrak. Claytor seemed to enjoy a good relationship with the Congress for his 11 years in the position. Of course, politics aside, that may have also been because he did a good job. According to an article in Fortune magazine, through vigorous cost cutting and aggressive marketing, within 7 years under Claytor, Amtrak was generating enough cash to cover 72% of its $1.7 billion operating budget by 1989, up from 48% in 1981.
Myth of a self-sustaining Amtrak
Two of the leaders who followed Claytor lacked freight railroad or private-sector experience. Further, they each inherited the goal of making Amtrak operationally self-sufficient, an idea which began under David Stockman and his successors at the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) while Claytor was Amtrak's president (circa 1986). Claytor's replacement was Thomas Downs. Downs had been city administrator of Washington DC, and oversaw the Union Station project, which had experienced both massive delays and cost overruns. Under Downs, Amtrak began to claim that it could achieve operating self-sufficiency, and its leaders seemed to be increasingly misleading as to the prospects of achieving that goal when pressed by Congress and the media. After Downs left Amtrak, George Warrington was appointed by the board as the company's next president. He had previously been in charge of Amtrak's Northeast Corridor Business Unit. When he took the helm of Amtrak in January, 1998, self-sufficiency was still officially a stated goal, although it was becoming elusive in the eyes of Congress. Under Warrington's administration, Amtrak was mandated by the Administration and Congress to become totally self-sufficient within a five-year period, and all its management efforts were directed to that goal. Passengers became "guests" and there were expansions into express freight work. Finally, at the end of the 5-year period, it became clear that self-sufficiency was an unachievable goal, no matter how much additional express revenue was gained or how many cuts were made in Amtrak services. 1998, after departing from Chicago in 1993.]] In fairness, while both Downs and Warrington had extensive experience in government, neither had the non-governmental cost accounting or practical experience in private-sector railroading that Claytor had had. Claytor also enjoyed the benefit of serving during the Reagan Administration when increases in federal spending on military items was drawing a lot of the political attention in Congress. The efforts to expand Amtrak's express income were unpopular with the host freight railroads, who did not want the additional Amtrak traffic it brought (or the competition). The express work also brought Amtrak new political enemies in the powerful trucking lobby before Congress. Warrington also had the burden of delays in implementation of the new Acela Express high-speed trainsets, which promised to be a strong source of income and favorable publicity along the Northeast Corridor between Boston and Washington DC. When David L. Gunn was selected as Amtrak president in April 2002, Amtrak self-sufficiency had largely fallen out of favor as a realistic short-term goal. Gunn came with a reputation as a strong, straightforward and experienced operating manager, but his blunt style sometimes put him at odds with others. Years earlier, Gunn's refusal to "do politics" put him at odds with the WMATA (Metro) board, which includes representatives from the District of Columbia and suburban jurisdictions in Maryland and Virginia during his tenure from 1991-1994. His work as president of the New York City Transit Authority from 1984 to 1990 and as Chief General Manager of the Toronto Transit Commission in Canada from 1995-1999 earned him a great deal of operating credibility, despite a sometimes-rough relationship with politicians and labor unions. The two agencies were each the largest transit operations of their respective countries. Prior to 1974, Gunn also gained private-sector railroad experience with Illinois Central Gulf Railroad, the New York Central Railroad System (before their 1968 merger into Penn Central) and for the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway. Before that, he had experience with the U.S. Navy in the Naval Reserve. Supporters consider Gunn's credentials to be the strongest at the head of Amtrak since W. Graham Claytor came out of retirement by request in 1982. Gunn was polite but direct in response to congressional criticism. He was also seen as more credible than some of his recent predecessors by Congress, the media, and many Amtrak supporters and employees. Perhaps more than any past president of Amtrak, Gunn seemed willing to publicly confront the policy and budget positions of the President of the United States who appointed the board at whose pleasure the Amtrak president serves. In a departure from his recent predecessors' promises to make Amtrak self-sufficient in the short term, the Gunn administration took the stance that no form of mass passenger transportation in the United States is self-sufficient as the economy is currently structured, and that Amtrak should not be judged by different standards than other transport modes. Highways, airports, and air traffic control all require large government expenditures to build and operate, although some of those expenditures are not as obvious as Amtrak's direct subsidies, instead appearing as user fees and highway fuel and road taxes. Before a congressional hearing, Gunn answered a demand by leading Amtrak critic Arizona Senator John McCain to eliminate all operating subsidies by asking the Senator if he would also demand the same of the commuter airlines, upon whom the citizens of Arizona are dependent. McCain, usually not at a loss for words when debating Amtrak funding, did not reply. Some of Gunn's actions have been seen by many as politically wise. He had been very proactive in reducing layers of management overhead and has eliminated almost all of the controversial express business. He had stated that continued deferred maintenance will become a safety issue which he will not tolerate. This improved labor relations to some extent, even as Amtrak's ranks of unionized and salaried workers have been reduced. On November 9, 2005, Amtrak's board of directors asked David L. Gunn to step down as president. He refused and was terminated. David Hughes was named as acting president and CEO until a permanent replacement can be appointed. David Laney, Amtrak's chairman, stated "Amtrak's future now requires a different type of leader who will aggressively tackle the company's financial, management and operational challenges. The need to bring fundamental change to Amtrak is greater and more urgent than ever before." The board envisions fundamental changes for the railroad including increasing competition and shared financial responsibilities with states.
Federal funding
Amtrak's ongoing need for federal government funding leads to recurring budget crises and debates over its possible elimination. A stalemate in federal subsidization of Amtrak has led to cutbacks in services and routes for the last several years, and some deferred maintenance. In fiscal 2004 and 2005, Congress appropriated about $1.2 billion for Amtrak, $300 million more than President Bush had requested. However, the company's board has requested $1.8 billion through fiscal 2006, the majority of which, about $1.3 billion, would be used to bring infrastructure, rolling stock, and motive power back to a state of good repair. In Congressional testimony, the Department of Transportation's inspector-general confirmed that Amtrak would need at least $1.4 billion to $1.5 billion in fiscal 2006 and $2 billion in fiscal 2007 just to maintain the status quo. As has been the practice in most years, the current budget proposal from the U.S. President to the Congress does not support Amtrak's continued existence in its current form. Hoping to spur Congress to overhaul the way Amtrak does business, the budget proposed by the Bush Administration for fiscal 2006 would eliminate Amtrak's operating subsidy and set aside $360 million to run trains along the Northeast Corridor once the railroad ceases operating. Several states have entered into operating partnerships with Amtrak, notably California, Illinois, Oregon, Washington, North Carolina, and Oklahoma.
National impact
states 2004.]] Amtrak employs over 19,000 people. The nationwide network of 22,000 miles of routes serves 500 communities in 46 of the United States, with some of the routes serving communities in Canadian provinces along the United States border. In fiscal year 2004, Amtrak routes served over 25 million passengers, a company record.
Gaps in service
The only states that are not served by Amtrak trains are Alaska (served by the Alaska Railroad), Hawaii, South Dakota, and Wyoming (lost service in the 1997 cuts; served by Amtrak's Thruway Motorcoaches). In addition, many large cities are not served by Amtrak such as
- Las Vegas, Nevada (lost service in the 1997 cuts),
- Boise, Idaho (same),
- Nashville, Tennessee,
- Louisville, Kentucky and
- Columbus, Ohio. Other cities are not served directly due to inconvenient water barriers including Norfolk and Virginia Beach in the Hampton Roads area, and San Francisco, where trains stop across the bay in Oakland and Emeryville. Others have only indirect service for other reasons, such as Phoenix, Arizona, which is served via Thruway coach from the Southwest Chief train at Flagstaff, Arizona or the nearby, yet remote due to a lack of any public transportation connection, Maricopa, Arizona roughly thirty miles from the city.
Amtrak routes and services
Maricopa, ArizonaAmtrak has a complex albeit decentralized management structure wherein individual train conductors and other staff are assigned to particular routes or stations whereas ticket sales are managed by a nationwide computer system. As a general rule, even-numbered routes run north and east while odd numbered routes run south and west. However, some routes, such as the Pacific Surfliners, use the exact opposite numbering system, which they inherited from the previous operators of similar routes, such as the Santa Fe Railroad. Amtrak gives each of its train routes a name. These names often reflect the rich and complex history of the route itself, or of the area traversed by the route.
Commuter services
Through various commuter services, Amtrak serves an additional 61.1 million passengers per year in conjunction with state and regional authorities in California, Washington, Maryland, Connecticut, and Virginia:
- CalTrain (San Francisco and San Jose)
- Sounder Commuter Rail (Seattle, Washington and the Puget Sound area)
- San Diego Coaster (San Diego)
- MARC (Maryland)
- Shore Line East (Connecticut)
- Virginia Railway Express (VRE) In the past, Amtrak has operated Metrolink . and MBTA Commuter Rail.
Freight services
Amtrak Express provides small package and less-than-truckload shipping services between more than 100 cities. Amtrak Express also offers station-to-station shipment of human remains to many express cities. At smaller stations, funeral directors must load and unload the shipment onto and off the train. Amtrak also hauled mail for the United States Postal Service as well as time sensitive freight shipments, but discontinued these services in October of 2004. On most parts of the few lines that Amtrak owns, it has trackage rights agreements allowing freight railroads to use its trackage.
Intermodal connections
Intermodal connections between Amtrak trains and other transportation are available at many stations. With few exceptions, Amtrak rail stations located in downtown areas have connections to local public transit. Amtrak also code shares with Continental Airlines providing service between Newark Liberty International Airport (via its Amtrak station) and Philadelphia 30th St, Wilmington, Stamford, and New Haven. In addition, Amtrak serves airport stations at Milwaukee and Baltimore. Amtrak also coordinates Thruway Motorcoach service to extend many of its routes, particularly in California.
Guest Rewards
California Amtrak operates a loyalty program called Guest Rewards, which is similar to the frequent flyer programs offered by many airlines. Guest Rewards members accumulate points by riding Amtrak and through other activities. Members can then redeem these points for free Amtrak tickets and other awards.
Trains and tracks
Most tracks are owned by freight railroads. Amtrak operates over all seven Class I railroads, as well as several short lines - the Guilford Rail System, New England Central Railroad and Vermont Railway. Other sections are owned by terminal railroads jointly controlled by freight companies or by commuter rail agencies.
Tracks owned by the company
Along the NEC and in several other areas, Amtrak owns 730 route-miles of track (1175 km), including 17 tunnels consisting of 29.7 miles of track (47.8 km), and 1,186 bridges (including the famous Hell Gate Bridge) consisting of 42.5 miles (68.4 km) of track. Amtrak owns and operates the following lines. ;Northeast Corridor The Northeast Corridor between Washington, D.C. and Boston via Philadelphia and New York is largely composed of Amtrak's own tracks. These are combined with those of several state and regional commuter agencies in what amounts to a cooperative arrangement. Amtrak's portion was acquired in 1976 as a result of the Railroad Revitalization and Regulatory Reform Act.
- Boston to the Massachusetts/Rhode Island state line (operated and maintained by Amtrak but owned by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts)
- 118.3 miles (190.4 km), Massachusetts/Rhode Island state line to New Haven, Connecticut
- 240 miles (386 km), New Rochelle, New York to Washington, D.C. ;Keystone Corridor This line runs from Philadelphia to Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, and is in the midst of a rehabilitation project that will eventually see 110 mph (about 175 km/h) service.
- 104 miles (167 km), Philadelphia to Harrisburg (Pennsylvanian and Keystone Service) ;Empire Corridor
- 11 miles (18 km), New York Penn Station to Spuyten Duyvil, New York
- 35.9 miles (57.8 km), Stuyvesant to Schenectady, New York (operated and maintained by Amtrak, but owned by CSX)
- 8.5 miles (13.8 km), Schenectady to Hoffmans, New York ;New Haven-Springfield Line
- 60.5 mi (97.4 km), New Haven to Springfield (Regional and Vermonter) ;Other tracks
- Chicago-Detroit Line - 98 miles (158 km), Porter, Indiana to Kalamazoo, Michigan (Wolverine)
- Chicago-Detroit Line - 4 miles (6 km) in Detroit, Michigan, CP Townline to CP West Detroit (Wolverine)
- Post Road Branch - 12.42 miles (20 km), Post Road Junction to Rensselaer, New York (Lake Shore Limited) Amtrak also owns station and yard tracks in: Chicago, Hialeah (near Miami, Florida) (leased from the State of Florida), Los Angeles, New Orleans, New York City, Oakland (Kirkham Street Yard), Orlando, Portland, Oregon, Saint Paul, Minnesota, Seattle, Washington, DC Amtrak wholly owns the Chicago Union Station Company (Chicago Union Station) and Penn Station Leasing (New York Penn Station). It has a 99.7% interest in the Washington Terminal Company (Washington Union Station) and 99% of 30th Street Limited (Philadelphia 30th Street Station). Also owned by Amtrak is Passenger Railroad Insurance.
Motive power and rolling stock
Amtrak operates 425 locomotives (351 diesel and 74 electric), 2,141 railroad cars including several types of passenger cars (including 168 sleeper cars, 760 coach cars, 126 first class/business class cars, 66 dormitory/crew cars, 225 lounge/café/dinette cars, and 92 dining cars). Many are Superliner I and II models, Amfleet I and II, Horizon Fleet. The newest sleeping car in service is the Viewliner. Baggage cars, autoracks for Auto Train service, and maintenance of way rolling stock make up the remainder of the fleet. The original cars that Amtrak inherited from the railroads in 1971 are known as the Heritage Fleet and are almost all retired. Twenty Acela Express trainsets have been used to provide popular high-speed rail service along the Northeast Corridor between South Station in Boston and Union Station in Washington D.C. This service has been so popular, in fact, that the Acela trains even cover their "above the rail" costs (operating expenses, but not capital to maintain infrastructure). However, the innovative service has not been without problems. In April 2005, all 20 trainsets were removed from service to repair cracked brake rotors. All trainsets were returned to service by September of that year.
References

- Amtrak System Timetable, Fall 2004/Winter 2005
- [http://www.amtrak.com/servlet/ContentServer?pagename=Amtrak/am2Copy/Title_Image_Copy_Page&c=am2Copy&cid=1081442674477&ssid=161 Amtrak financial reports]
-
-
- # # # # Amtrak (November 9 2005), [http://www.amtrak.com/servlet/ContentServer?pagename=Amtrak/am2Copy/News_Release_Page&c=am2Copy&cid=1093554026306&ssid=180 Amtrak Board Releases Gunn]. Retrieved November 9 2005. # # #
See also

- Amtrak California - A partnership of Caltrans and Amtrak.
- Amtrak Cascades - A partnership of Washington State DOT and Amtrak.
- Auto-Train Corporation - Private company that pioneered car-on-train service. Service lives on as Amtrak's Auto Train (no hyphen).
- List of Amtrak stations
- Superliner (railcar)
- Thruway Motorcoach
- Amtrak Discount Codes - Amtrak offers a variety of discount codes for some routes and times. They new codes appear and expire regularly.
External links
;Corporate sites
- [http://www.amtrak.com/ Amtrak.com]
- [http://www.amtrakcascades.com/ Amtrak Cascades Corridor]
- [http://www.amtrakcapitols.com/ Amtrak Capitol Corridor]
- [http://www.amtrakcalifornia.com/ Amtrak California]
- [http://www.mitrain.org/ Amtrak Michigan Services]
- [http://www.amtrakguestrewards.com/ Amtrak Guest Rewards] ;Passenger train advocacy
- [http://www.narprail.org/ National Association of Railroad Passengers]
- [http://www.trainweb.org/crocon/amtrak.html Friends of Amtrak]
- [http://www.saveamtrak.net/ Save Amtrak]
- [http://www.unitedrail.org United Rail Passenger Alliance] ;External articles
- [http://www.trains.com/Content/Dynamic/Articles/000/000/001/123clbam.asp Amtrak's beginnings] - via http://Trains.com
- [http://www.csmonitor.com/specials/amtrak/index.html?s=spusa All Aboard?] - via http://CSMonitor.com ;History
- [http://www.amtrakhistoricalsociety.com/ Amtrak Historical Society]
- [http://www.trains.com/Content/Dynamic/Articles/000/000/001/138fddcg.asp Trains Operating on the Eve of Amtrak (1971-04-30)]
- [http://broadway.pennsyrr.com/Rail/Amtk/routes_1971.html Amtrak's First Trains & Routes (1971-05-01)]
- [http://groups.google.com/group/bit.listserv.railroad/msg/71c75eb00db0da08?hl=en Amtrak timetable, 1971-11-14]
- Mike Schafer, Amtrak's atlas, Trains June 1991
- Kevin McKinney, At the dawn of Amtrak, Trains June 1991 ;Miscellaneous
- [http://www.railserve.com/railnews/amtrak_news.html Amtrak News]
- [http://forums.amtraktrains.com/ Amtrak Unlimited Discussion Boards]
- [http://www.usa-by-rail.com/ USA by Rail guide]
- [http://www.on-track-on-line.com/amtrak-freqs.shtml Amtrak Radio Frequencies] (includes information on the owners of the tracks) Category:Amtrak Category:Rail transport ja:アムトラック

1846

1846 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 5 - The United States House of Representatives votes to stop sharing the Oregon Territory with the United Kingdom
- February 5 - The Oregon Spectator becomes the first newspaper on the Pacific coast of the United States.
- February 10 - Many Mormons begin their migration west from Nauvoo, Illinois to Great Salt Lake led by Brigham Young
- February 19 - In Austin, Texas the newly-formed Texas state government is officially installed.
- March 10 - Prince Osahito, fourth son of deceased Emperor Ninko of Japan, becomes Emperor Komei of Japan.
- April 25 - Mexican-American War: Open conflict begins over border disputes of Texas' boundaries.
- April 27 - The first arrival of a train to Celje.
- May 8 - Mexican-American War: The Battle of Palo Alto - Zachary Taylor defeats a Mexican force north of the Rio Grande at Palo Alto, Texas in the first major battle of the war.
- May 13 - Mexican-American War: The United States declares war on Mexico.
- 16 May - Under the leadership of British Prime Minister