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December 21

December 21

December 21 is the 355th day of the year (356th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. There are 10 days remaining.

Events

- 69 - Vespasian becomes the fourth Roman Emperor in the Year of the four emperors
- 1620 - The Pilgrims land on what is now known as Plymouth Rock
- 1780 - Great Britain declares war on The Netherlands in response to the Dutch joining the League of Armed Neutrality and for assisting French and American forces during the American Revolution
- 1861 - The Medal of Honor first authorized
- 1861 - Lord Lyons, the British minister to the United States, meets with United States Secretary of State William Seward concerning Confederate envoys arrested by the United States Navy in order to prevent war between the United States and the United Kingdom.
- 1872 - HMS Challenger sails from Portsmouth on the four-year scientific expedition that would lay the foundation for the science of oceanography
- 1880 - Isle of Man becomes first political entity that allows women to vote
- 1891 - First basketball game played
- 1898 - Marie and Pierre Curie discover radium
- 1913 - First crossword puzzle published
- 1914 - First feature-length silent film comedy, Tillie's Punctured Romance, starring Marie Dressler, Mabel Normand and Charles Chaplin, is released
- 1919 - Municipal elections held in Senegal (First round, second round is held December 28). The multi-racial list of the Independent Socialist Republican Party (PRSI) wins in all four municipalities
- 1923 - Nepal changes from British protectorate to independent state
- 1933 - Newfoundland becomes a crown colony
- 1937 - First screening of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, the first feature-length animated movie
- 1958 - Charles de Gaulle is elected as the first President of France and establishes the Fifth Republic
- 1962 - Rondane National Park, the first national park in Norway, was established
- 1968 - Apollo 8 launched
- 1979 - The United States government bails out the Chrysler Corporation
- 1979 - The Lancaster House Agreement was signed, effectively ending the white rule in Rhodesia under Ian Smith
- 1983 - Former U.S. President Gerald Ford guest-stars as himself on the prime-time soap opera Dynasty
- 1987 - The passenger ferry Doña Paz sinks after colliding with the oil tanker Vector 1; well over 1,000 die
- 1988 - A terrorist bomb explodes and crashes Pan Am flight 103, a Boeing 747, over Lockerbie, Scotland killing 270, including eleven on the ground
- 1999 - The Spanish Civil Guard intercepts a van loaded with 950 kg of explosives intended by ETA to blow down Torre Picasso
- 2001 - Japanese television performer Masashi Tashiro got No. 1 temporarily in the Internet vote of Time's Person of the Year
- 2001 - President Fernando de la Rúa of Argentina was forced out of office in the midst of the December 2001 riots and financial crisis
- 2002 - Vancouver, British Columbia city council declares "D.O.A. Day" in observance of the Canadian punk band D.O.A.'s decades of influence and accomplishments
- 2012 - The Long Count of the Maya calendar recycles according to the most popular correlation. A minority argues that it does so on December 23, 2012

Births

- 1118 - Thomas Becket, Lord Chancellor of England and Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1170)
- 1401 - Tommaso Masaccio, Italian painter (d. 1428)
- 1596 - Peter Mogila, Orthodox Metropolitan of Kiev and Galicia (d. 1646)
- 1603 - Roger Williams, English theologian and colonist (d. 1684)
- 1714 - John Bradstreet, Canadian-born soldier (d. 1774)
- 1804 - Benjamin Disraeli, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1881)
- 1811 - Archibald Campbell Tait, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1882)
- 1815 - Thomas Couture French painter and teacher (d. 1879)
- 1843 - Thomas Bracken, New Zealand writer (d. 1898)
- 1850 - Zdeněk Fibich, Czech composer (d. 1900)
- 1859 - Gustave Kahn, French poet (d. 1936)
- 1872 - Don Lorenzo Perosi, Italian composer (d. 1956)
- 1872 - Albert Payson Terhune, American author (d. 1942)
- 1876 - Jack Lang, Australian politician (d. 1975)
- 1878 - Jan Łukasiewicz, Polish philosopher and mathematician (d. 1956)
- 1879 - Joseph Stalin, Leader of the Soviet Union from 1922 to 1953 (d. 1953)
- 1889 - Sewall Wright, American biologist (d. 1988)
- 1890 - Hermann Joseph Muller, American geneticist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1967)
- 1892 - Walter Hagen, American golfer (d. 1969)
- 1892 - Rebecca West, American writer (d. 1983)
- 1896 - Leroy Robertson, American composer (d. 1971)
- 1914 - Ivan Generalić, Croatian painter (d. 1992)
- 1917 - Heinrich Böll, German writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1985)
- 1918 - Donald Regan, Chief of Staff and U.S. Treasury Secretary (d. 2003)
- 1918 - Kurt Waldheim, United Nations Secretary-General
- 1921 - Vampira, Finnish actress
- 1922 - Paul Winchell, American ventriloquist (d. 2005)
- 1926 - Joe Paterno, American football coach
- 1935 - John G. Avildsen, American film director and editor
- 1935 - Yusuf Bey, Black Muslim leader
- 1935 - Phil Donahue, American talk show host
- 1937 - Jane Fonda, American actress and activist
- 1940 - Frank Zappa, American musician (d. 1993)
- 1942 - Hu Jintao, President of the People's Republic of China
- 1942 - Reinhard Mey, German singer
- 1942 - Carla Thomas, American singer
- 1944 - Michael Tilson Thomas, American conductor
- 1946 - Carl Wilson, American musician (The Beach Boys) (d. 1998)
- 1947 - Paco de Lucía, Spanish guitarist
- 1948 - Samuel L. Jackson, American actor
- 1948 - Willi Resetarits, Austrian musician and cabaret artist
- 1950 - Jeffrey Katzenberg, American producer
- 1954 - Chris Evert, American tennis player
- 1955 - Jane Kaczmarek, American actress
- 1957 - Tom Henke, baseball player
- 1957 - Ray Romano, American comedian and actor
- 1959 - Florence Griffith Joyner, American runner (d. 1998)
- 1961 - Francis Ng, Hong Kong actor
- 1965 - Andy Dick, American actor and comedian
- 1965 - Anke Engelke, German comedienne
- 1966 - Kiefer Sutherland, Canadian actor
- 1967 - Mikhail Saakashvili, President of Georgia
- 1969 - Julie Delpy, French actress
- 1973 - Karmen Stavec, Slovenian singer
- 1974 - Karrie Webb, Australian golfer
- 1978 - Mike Vitar, American actor
- 1984 - Darren Potter, Irish footballer

Deaths

- 1295 - Marguerite Berenger of Provence, queen of Louis IX of France
- 1308 - Henry I of Hesse (b. 1244)
- 1375 - Giovanni Boccaccio, Italian writer (b. 1313)
- 1504 - Bertold von Henneberg-Römhild, German archbishop and elector (b. 1442)
- 1549 - Marguerite of Navarre, queen of Henry II of Navarre (b. 1492)
- 1579 - Vicente Masip, Spanish painter
- 1597 - Petrus Canisius, Dutch Jesuit (b. 1521)
- 1807 - John Newton, English cleric and hymnist (b. 1725)
- 1873 - Francis Garnier, French explorer (b. 1839)
- 1935 - Kurt Tucholsky, German journalist and satirist (b. 1890)
- 1937 - Frank B. Kellogg, United States Secretary of State, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1856)
- 1940 - F. Scott Fitzgerald, American writer (b. 1896)
- 1945 - George S. Patton, U.S. general (b. 1885)
- 1956 - Don Lorenzo Perosi, Italian composer (b. 1872)
- 1957 - Eric Coates, English composer (b. 1886)
- 1958 - Lion Feuchtwanger, German writer (b. 1884)
- 1983 - Paul de Man, Belgian-born literary critic (b. 1919)
- 1988 - Nikolaas Tinbergen, Dutch ornithologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1907)
- 1992 - Albert King, American musician (b. 1924)
- 1992 - Nathan Milstein, Ukrainian violinist (b. 1903)
- 2001 - Dick Schaap, American sports journalist (b. 1931)
- 2004 - Autar Singh Paintal, Indian medical scientist (b. 1925)

Holidays and observances

- The summer solstice (Southern Hemisphere) or winter solstice (Northern Hemisphere), sometimes known as Yule, occurs on or very close to this date. It is an important festival in the Chinese calendar.

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/21 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.tnl.net/when/12/21 Today in History: December 21] ---- December 20 - December 22 - November 21 - January 21 -- listing of all days ko:12월 21일 ms:21 Disember ja:12月21日 simple:December 21 th:21 ธันวาคม

December 21

December 21 is the 355th day of the year (356th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. There are 10 days remaining.

Events

Births

Deaths

Holidays and observances

External links

Vespasian

Caesar Vespasianus Augustus (November 17, 9 – June 23, 79), originally known as Titus Flavius Vespasianus and best known as Vespasian, was the emperor of Rome from 69 to 79. He was founder of the Flavian dynasty and ascended the throne in the end of the Year of the four emperors.

Family and early career

He was born in the Sabine country near Reate. His father, Titus Flavius Sabinus, was an equestrian who worked as a customs official in Asia and a money-lender on a small scale in Aventicum, where Vespasian lived for some time; his mother, Vespasia Polla, was the sister of a Senator. After prompting from his mother, Vespasian followed his older brother, also called Titus Flavius Sabinus, into public life. He served in the army as a military tribune in Thrace in 36, and the following year was elected quaestor, serving in Crete and Cyrene. He rose through the ranks of Roman public office, being elected aedile at the second attempt in 39 and praetor at the first attempt in 40, taking the opportunity to ingratiate himself with the Emperor Caligula. In the meantime he had married Flavia Domitilla, the daughter of an equestrian from Ferentium, and they had two sons, Titus Flavius Vespasianus (b. 41) and Titus Flavius Domitianus (b. 51), and a daughter, Domitilla (b. 39). Flavia died before Vespasian became emperor; therafter his mistress, Caenis, was his wife in all but name until she died in 74. Upon the accession of Claudius as emperor in 41, Vespasian was appointed legate of the Legio II Augusta, stationed in Germania, thanks to the influence of the Imperial freedman Narcissus.

Invasion of Britannia

In 43, Vespasian and the II Augusta participated in the Roman invasion of Britain, and he distinguished himself under the overall command of Aulus Plautius. After participating in crucial early battles on the rivers Medway and Thames, he was sent to reduce the southwest, penetrating to the borders of modern Somerset. He fought thirty battles, captured twenty oppida (towns, or more probably hillforts, one of them being Maiden Castle in Dorset), subdued two powerful nations and reduced Vectis (the Isle of Wight), earning a triumph on his return to Rome.

Continued political career

Vespasian was elected consul for the last two months of 51, after which he withdrew from public life. He came out of retirement in 63 when he was sent as governor to Africa, where, according to Tacitus (ii.97), his rule was "infamous and odious"; according to Suetonius (Vesp. 4), "upright and, highly honourable". On one occasion he was pelted with turnips. At this time he found himself in financial difficulties and was forced to mortgage his estates to his brother. To revive his fortunes he turned to the mule trade and gained the nickname mulio (mule-driver). Returning from Africa, Vespasian toured Greece in Nero's retinue, but lost Imperial favour after paying insufficient attention to the Emperor's recitals on the lyre, and found himself in the political wilderness.

Great Jewish Revolt

lyre to celebrate the victory in the Jewish Rebellion. The legend on the reverse says: IVDAEA CAPTA, Judea captured.]] However, in 66, Vespasian was appointed to conduct the war in Iudaea, which was threatening unrest throughout the East. A revolt there had killed the previous governor and routed Licinius Mucianus, the governor of Syria, when he tried to restore order. Vespasian was dispatched with two legions to add to the one already there. His elder son, Titus, served under him. During this time he became the patron of Flavius Josephus, a Jewish resistance leader turned Roman agent who would go on to write his people's history in Greek.

The Year of Four Emperors

After the death of Nero in 68, Rome saw a succession of short-lived emperors and a year of civil wars. Galba was murdered by Otho, who was defeated by Vitellius. Otho's supporters, looking for another candidate to support, settled on Vespasian. According to Suetonius, a prophecy ubiquitous in the Eastern provinces claimed that from Iudaea would come the future rulers of the world. Vespasian eventually believed that this prophecy applied to him, and found a number of omens, oracles, and portents that reinforced this belief. He also found encouragement in Mucianus, the governor of Syria; and although a strict disciplinarian and reformer of abuses, Vespasian's soldiers were thoroughly devoted to him. All eyes in the East were now upon him; Mucianus and the Syrian legions were eager to support him; and while he was at Caesarea, he was proclaimed emperor (July 1, 69), first by the army in Egypt, and then by his troops in Iudaea (July 11). Nevertheless, Vitellius, the occupant of the throne, had on his side the veteran legions of Gaul and the Rhineland, Rome's best troops. But the feeling in Vespasian's favour quickly gathered strength, and the armies of Moesia, Pannonia, and Illyricum soon declared for him, and made him in fact master of half of the Roman world. While Vespasian himself was in Egypt securing its grain supply, his troops entered Italy on the northeast under the leadership of M. Antonius Primus, defeated Vitellius's army (which had awaited him in Mevania) at Bedriacum (or Betriacum), sacked Cremona and advanced on Rome, which they entered after furious fighting and a frightful confusion, in which the Capitol was destroyed by fire. On receiving the tidings of his rival's defeat and death at Alexandria, the new emperor at once forwarded supplies of urgently needed grain to Rome, along with an edict or a declaration of policy, in which he gave assurance of an entire reversal of the laws of Nero, especially those relating to treason. While in Egypt he visited the Temple of Serapis, where reportedly he experienced a vision, and later was confronted by two laborers who were convinced that he possessed a divine power which could work miracles.

Vespasian as Emperor

Leaving the war in Judaea to his son Titus, he arrived at Rome in 70. He at once devoted his energies to repairing the evils caused by civil war. He restored discipline in the army, which under Vitellius had become utterly demoralized, and, with the cooperation of the Senate, put the government and the finances on a sound footing. He renewed old taxes and instituted new ones, increased the tribute of the provinces, and kept a watchful eye upon the treasury officials. By his own example of simplicity of life, he put to shame the luxury and extravagance of the Roman nobles and initiated in many respects a marked improvement in the general tone of society. As censor he reformed the Senatorial and Equestrian orders, removing unfit and unworthy members and promoting good and able men, among them Gnaeus Julius Agricola. At the same time, he made it more dependent upon the Emperor, by exercising an influence upon its composition. He altered the constitution of the Praetorian Guard, in which only Italians, formed into nine cohorts, were enrolled. In 70, a formidable rising in Gaul, headed by Gaius Julius Civilis, was suppressed by Vespasian's brother-in-law, Quintus Petillius Cerialis, and the German frontier made secure; the Jewish War was brought to a close by Titus's capture of Jerusalem, and in the following year, after the joint triumph of Vespasian and Titus, memorable as the first occasion on which a father and his son were thus associated together in the Western world, the temple of Janus was closed, and the Roman world had rest for the remaining nine years of Vespasian's reign. "The peace of Vespasian" passed into a proverb. In 78 Agricola went to Britain, and both extended and consolidated the Roman dominion in that province, pushing his way into what is now Scotland. In the following year Vespasian died, on June 23.

Views on Vespasian

The avarice with which both Tacitus and Suetonius stigmatize Vespasian seems really to have been an enlightened economy, which, in the disordered state of the Roman finances, was an absolute necessity. Vespasian could be liberal to impoverished Senators and equestrians, to cities and towns desolated by natural calamity, and especially to men of letters and rhetors, several of whom he pensioned with salaries of as much as 1,000 gold pieces a year. Quintilian is said to have been the first public teacher who enjoyed this Imperial favor. Pliny the Elder's great work, the Natural History, was written during Vespasian's reign, and dedicated to Vespasian's son Titus. Some of the philosophers who talked idly of the good old times of the Republic, and thus indirectly encouraged conspiracy, provoked him into reviving the obsolete penal laws against this profession, but only one, Helvidius Priscus, was put to death, and he had affronted the Emperor by studied insults. "I will not kill a dog that barks at me," were words honestly expressing the temper of Vespasian. Vespasian was indeed noted for mildness and a healthy sense of justice. For example, he helped his late adversary Vitellius' daughter find a suitable husband and even provided her with the dowry. Much money was spent on public works and the restoration and beautifying of Rome: a new forum, the splendid Temple of Peace, the public baths and the vast Colosseum. To the last, Vespasian was a plain, blunt soldier, with a demonstrated strength of character and ability, and with a steady purpose to establish good order and secure the prosperity and welfare of his subjects. In his habits he was punctual and regular, transacting his business early in the morning, and enjoying a siesta in the afternoon. He did not quite have the distinguished bearing looked for in an emperor. He was free in his conversation, and his humour, of which he had a good deal, was apt to take the form of rather coarse jokes. He could jest even in his last moments. "Alas, I think I'm turning into a God," he whispered to those around him. There is something very characteristic in the exclamation he is said to have uttered in his last illness, "An emperor ought to die standing."

Sources

- Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars
- Tacitus, Histories
- Dio Cassius, Roman History

External links

- [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vespasian
- .html Life of Vespasian] (Suetonius; English translation and Latin original)
- Biography on [http://www.roman-emperors.org/vespasia.htm De Impertoribus Romanis]. This entry was based on the entry from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. ---- Category:9 births Category:79 deaths Category:Roman emperors Category:Ancient Jewish Roman history Category:Romans in Britain Category:Flavian Dynasty Category:Year of Four Emperors ko:베스파시아누스 ja:ウェスパシアヌス

Year of the Four Emperors

The forced suicide of emperor Nero, in 68 AD, was followed by a brief period of civil war (the first Roman civil war since Antony's death in 31 BC) known as the Year of the four emperors. Between June of 68 and December of 69 AD, Rome witnessed the successive rise and fall of Galba, Otho and Vitellius until the final accession of Vespasian, first ruler of the Flavian dynasty. This period of civil war has become emblematic of the cyclic political disturbances in the history of the Roman Empire. The military and political anarchy created by this civil war had serious implications, such as the outbreak of the Batavian rebellion.

Succession

Nero to Galba

The last years of Nero's reign were characterized by a climate of fear and terror. The city and Senate were overwhelmed by the emperor's power and suffered dearly from his paranoia. In April 68, the senator Caius Julius Vindex, governor of Gallia Lugdunensis and an Aquitanian romanised prince, decided on a rebellion, with the purpose of substituting Servius Sulpicius Galba, governor of Hispania Tarraconensis for Nero. Galba accepted the proposal and immediately marched on Rome. The revolt in Gaul proved to be a disaster. The legions stationed at the border to Germania marched to meet Vindex and confront him as a traitor. Led by Lucius Verginius Rufus, the Rhine army defeated Vindex in battle and killed him, hoping for a subsequent reward from the emperor. However, in June, the Senate took the initiative to rid itself of Nero, declaring him persona non grata. Galba was recognized as emperor and welcomed into the city at the head of his legions. Nero committed suicide. :Galba legions: VI Victrix, I Macriana liberatrix, I Adiutrix, III Augusta and VII Gemina.

Galba to Otho

This turn of events gave the German legions not the reward for loyalty that they had expected, but rather accusations of having obstructed Galba's path to the throne. Their commander, Rufus, was immediately replaced by the new emperor. Aulus Vitellius was appointed governor of the province of Germania Inferior. The loss of political confidence in Germania's loyalty also resulted in the dismissal of the Imperial Batavian Bodyguards. Whilst the rest of the empire celebrated the death of Nero, rebellion was on the loose along the Rhine. Galba did not remain popular for long. On his march to Rome, he either destroyed or took enormous fines from towns that did not accept him immediately. In Rome, Galba cancelled all the reforms of Nero, including benefits for many important persons. Like his predecessor, Galba had an irrational fear of conspirators and executed many senators and equestrians without trial. The army was not happy either. After his safe arrival to Rome, Galba refused to pay the rewards he had promised to soldiers who had supported him. Moreover, in the start of the civil year of 69 AD in January 1, the legions of Germania Inferior refused to swear allegiance and obedience to the new emperor. On the following day, the legions acclaimed Vitellius, their governor, as emperor. Hearing the news of the loss of the Rhine legions, Galba panicked. He adopted a young Senator, Lucius Calpurnius Piso Licianus, as his successor. By doing this, he offended many people and above all Marcus Salvius Otho, an influential and ambitious man who desired the honour for himself. Otho bribed the Praetorian Guard, already very unhappy with the emperor, to his side. When Galba heard about the coup d'etat he went to the streets in an attempt to normalize the situation. It proved a mistake, because he could attract no supporters. Shortly afterwards, the Praetorian Guard killed him in the Forum. :Otho's legions: XIII Gemina and I Audiutrix

Otho to Vitellius

Otho was recognised as emperor by the Senate that same day. The new emperor was saluted with relief. Although ambitious and greedy, Otho did not have a record for tyranny or cruelty and was expected to be a fair emperor. However, trouble in the form of Vitellius was marching down on Italy from Germany. Vitellius had behind him the finest elite legions of the empire, composed of veterans of the Germanic Wars, such as I Germanica and XXI Rapax. These would prove to be his best arguments to gain power. Otho was not keen to begin another civil war and sent emissaries to proposed a peace and inviting Vitellius to be his son-in-law. It was too late to reason; Vitellius' generals had half of his army heading to Italy. After a series of minor victories, Otho was defeated in the Battle of Bedriacum. Rather than flee and attempt a counter-attack, Otho decided to put an end to the anarchy and commit suicide. He had been emperor for a little more than three months. :Vitellius' legions: I Germanica, V Alaude, I Italica, XV Primigenia, I Macriana liberatrix, III Augusta, and XXI Rapax :Otho legions: I Adiutrix
Vitellius to Vespasian
On the news of Otho's suicide, Vitellius was recognised as emperor by the Senate. Granted this recognition, Vitellius set out for Rome. However, the start of his reign was not auspicious. The city was left very sceptical when Vitellius chose the anniversary of the Battle of the Allia (in 394 BC), a day of bad auspices to the superstitious Roman mind, to accede to the office of Pontifex Maximus. Events would seemingly prove them right. With the throne tightly secured, Vitellius engaged in a series of feasts, banquets (Suetonius refers to three a day: morning, afternoon and night) and triumphal parades that drove the imperial treasury close to bankruptcy. Debts were quickly accrued and money-lenders started to demand repayment. Vitellius showed his violent nature by ordering the torture and execution of those who dared to make such demands. With financial affairs in a state of calamity, Vitellius took the initiative of killing citizens who named him as their heir, often together with any co-heirs. Moreover, he engaged in a pursuit of every possible rival, inviting them to the palace with promises of power only to have them assassinated. Meanwhile, the legions stationed in the Middle East provinces of Judaea and Syria had acclaimed Vespasian as emperor. Vespasian had been given a special command in Judaea by Nero in 67 with the task of putting down the Jewish rebellion. He gained the support of the governor of Syria, Gaius Licinius Mucianus. A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus. Vespasian himself travelled to Alexandria where he was acclaimed Emperor on July 1, thereby gaining control of the vital grain supplies from Egypt. Vespasian's son Titus remained in Judaea to deal with the Jewish rebellion. Before the eastern legions could reach Rome, the Danubian legions of the provinces of Raetia and Moesia also acclaimed Vespasian as Emperor in August, and led by Marcus Antonius Primus invaded Italy. In October, the forces led by Primus won a crushing victory over Vitellius' army at the Second Battle of Bedriacum. Surrounded by enemies, Vitellius made a last attempt to win the city to his side, distributing bribes and promises of power where needed. He tried to levy by force several allied tribes, such as the Batavians, only to be refused. The Danube army was now very near Rome. Realising the immediate threat, Vitellius made a last attempt to gain time and sent emissaries, accompanied by Vestal Virgins, to negotiate a truce and start peace talks. The following day, messengers arrived with news that the enemy was at the gates of the city. Vitellius went into hiding and prepared to flee, but decided on a last visit to the palace. There he was caught by Vespasian's men and killed. The Senate acknowledged Vespasian as emperor in the following day. It was the 21st of December of 69 AD, the year that had begun with Galba on the throne. :Vitellius legions: XV Primigenia :Vespasian legions: III Augusta, I Macriana liberatrix
Aftermath
Vespasian did not meet any direct threat to his imperial power after the death of Vitellius. He became the founder of the stable Flavian dynasty that succeeded the Julio-Claudians and died of natural causes as emperor in 79 AD, with the famous words Dear me, I must be turning into a god…
Chronology

68 AD

- April – Galba, governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, and Vindex, governor of Gallia Lugdunensis rebel against Nero
- May – The Rhine legions defeat and kill Vindex in Gaul
- June – Nero is declared a public enemy by the senate and commits suicide; on the same day, Galba is recognized emperor.
- November – Vitellius nominated governor of Germania Inferior
69 AD

- January 1 – The Rhine legions refuse to swear loyalty to Galba
- January 2 – Vitellius acclaimed emperor by the Rhine
- January 15 – Galba killed by the Praetorian Guard; in the same day, the senate recognizes Otho as emperor
- April 14 – Vitellius defeats Otho
- April 16 – Otho commits suicide; Vitellius recognized emperor
- July 1 – Vespasian, commander of the Roman army in Judaea, proclaimed emperor
- August – The Danubian legions announce support to Vespasian (in Syria) and invade Italy in September on his behalf
- October – The Danube army defeats Vitellius and Vespasian occupies Egypt
- December 20 –Vitellius killed by soldiers in the Imperial Palace
- December 21 – Vespasian recognized emperor
See also

- Tacitus, Histories
References

- Roman Warfare, Adrian Goldsworthy
- The Twelve Caesars, Suetonius, available from Project Gutenberg: [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6400 The Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Complete]
- The year of the four emperors, Peter Greenhalgh (1975) Category:Ancient Rome Category:Flavian Dynasty Category:Wars of Ancient Rome Category:Year of Four Emperors

Pilgrims

:This article is about the colonists of North America. For religious travelers in general, see Pilgrim. For the football teams of this nickname, see Plymouth Argyle F.C. and Boston United F.C.. Boston United F.C. The Pilgrims were a group of English religious separatists who sailed from Europe to North America in the early 17th century, in search of a home where they could freely practice their style of religion.

Experiences and Politics in Europe

The various members of the group had broken away from the Church of England, feeling that the Church had not completed the task begun by the Reformation. Under the guidance of the Reverends William Brewster, Richard Clifton and John Robinson, a portion of the group left their homes in and around Scrooby, England and sailed to Amsterdam in Holland to escape what they saw as religious persecution at the hands of the religious and civil authorities of their countrymen. Although not actively persecuted, the group was subjected to ecclesiastical investigation and to the mockery, criticism, and disfavor of their neighbors ([http://www.bartleby.com/65/pi/Pilgrims.html Columbia Encyclopaedia]). They left, not for religious freedom, but because there was too much freedom of religion in England and they wanted it to be more strict. These separatist "Pilgrims" settled in Leiden for 12 years, but by 1617 a poor economy, and concern about the Dutch influence upon their community convinced many of them to move on, this time to the New World. Concerned with the morals of the time in the Netherlands, and with their children being brought up in a Dutch environment, they decided to move to a place better-suited to them; and in 1620, they set sail on the ship Mayflower from Plymouth Harbour, bound for the Americas. These people became known as the Pilgrim Fathers. Another way of explaining the atmosphere in the Netherlands is that some of the exiles, such as Brewster, were publishing what the English government saw as "seditious" books, and were sending them into England (see John Lilburne). The English authorities put diplomatic pressure on the Dutch government to stop it; the Dutch government began to comply, and the exiles decided that it was time to leave. With hindsight, it is natural to regard the Spanish threat to England as dealt with by the defeat of the Armada of 1588, but this was not the only, nor last threat from that quarter (there were other "armadas" in other years; the Gunpowder Plot occurred in 1605), and suspicion of Spanish intentions continued into the reign of James I of England, if only in the minds of the English, as a conditioned response to the hard-line policy of the by-then, dead king Philip II of Spain. The English government was thus trying to plot a political-religious course between the position of the Roman Catholic, Philip III of Spain and the "Puritan" Congregationalism advocated by Brewster and others. At the time, fewer than half of the Congregation's members chose to leave the Netherlands aboard the Speedwell and sail to Southampton, England, where they joined a larger group of religious separatists aboard the Mayflower. After stopping at Plymouth, England, they departed on September 6, 1620, with 102 people aboard. Their intended destination was a section of land in the area called Northern Virginia, granted by one of the Brewster family friends in the London Company. This grant would have placed them near the Hudson River.

Arrival in America

Forced off-course by harsh North Atlantic weather, the Mayflower arrived at Cape Cod after 65 days at sea, and anchored off present-day Truro on November 21, 1620. Realizing that it would require a significant additional voyage to reach their goal, the Pilgrims chose to abandon their original plans, and to form a community where they were. Having no legal authority to colonize the area, they met to sign their own charter, known as the Mayflower Compact, in which they agreed to form a "self-governing, Christian community". It was not long before the Pilgrims determined that the sandy land of the outer cape was insufficient to support them, so a group of them sailed across Cape Cod Bay and landed at Plymouth on December 21. The bulk of the settlers followed six days later. The first settlement of the colony was "New Plymouth", later Plymouth, Massachusetts. By the end of that winter, almost half of the settlers were dead (probably from starvation and disease), including their leader John Carver. Thus began one of the best-intended, historically renowned, and yet strangely ill-fated colonial ventures in America (after the Roanoke Island Settlement and Jamestown). When the Massachusetts Bay Colony got its new charter in 1691, Plymouth ended its history as a separate colony. William Bradford (1590-1657) became governor in 1621 upon the death of Carver, served for eleven consecutive years, and was elected to various other terms until his death in 1657. The patent of Plymouth Colony was surrendered by Bradford to The Freemen in 1640, minus a small reserve of three tracts of land. On March 22, 1621, the Pilgrims of Plymouth Colony signed a peace treaty with Massasoit of the Wampanoags. The colony contained roughly what is now Bristol County, Plymouth County, and Barnstable County, Massachusetts. Plymouth was the second permanent English settlement in the Americas, the first being Jamestown, Virginia. Early, abandoned settlements include the Popham Colony (present-day Maine), the "Lost Colony" of Roanoke Island (present-day North Carolina), and Cuper's Cove and Bristol's Hope in present-day Newfoundland. Many people (including school teachers) confuse Pilgrims and Puritans. Pilgrims wanted to separate from the Church of England. Puritans wanted to purify, but not separate, from the Church of England.

External links

- Category:U.S. colonial history Category:Massachusetts history ja:ピルグリム・ファーザーズ

1780

1780 was a leap year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 16 - American Revolutionary War: Battle of Cape St. Vincent
- February - Armed Neutrality of the North alliance formed between Denmark, Sweden, and Russia.
- March 26 - The British Gazette and Sunday Monitor, the first Sunday newspaper in Britain
- April 16 - The University of Münster in Münster, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany is founded
- May 12 - American Revolutionary War: Charleston, South Carolina is taken by British forces.
- May 29 - American Revolutionary War: Loyalist forces under Col. Banastre Tarleton kill surrendering American soldiers in the Waxhaw Massacre.
- August 16 - American Revolutionary War: Battle of Camden - The British defeat the Americans near Camden, South Carolina.
- September 25 – Benedict Arnold flees to British-held New York
- October 2 - American Revolutionary War: British spy John Andre is hanged by American forces.
- October 10-16 – Great hurricane flattens the islands of Barbados, Martinique and St. Eustatius
- November 29 - Maria Theresa of Austria dies and her Habsburg dominions pass to her ambitious son, Joseph II, who has already been Holy Roman Emperor since 1765.
- Britain attacks the United Provinces before it can join the Neutral Alliance, because of its support for the American uprising.
- First Epsom Derby horse race run at Epsom Downs, Surrey, England.
- Emperor Kokaku ascends to the throne of Japan
- In Ireland, Lady Berry, who is sentenced to death for the murder of her son, is released when she agrees to become an executioner (retires 1810)
- Good grain and wine harvest in France

Births

- April 29 - Charles Nodier, French author (d. 1844)
- May 21 - Elizabeth Fry, British humanitarian (d. 1845)
- June 1 - Carl von Clausewitz, Prussian military strategist (d. 1831)
- August 29 - Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, French painter (d. 1867)
- December 26 - Mary Fairfax Somerville, British mathematician (d. 1872)
- John Bird Sumner, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1862)

Deaths

- February 14 - William Blackstone, English jurist (b. 1723)
- February 17 - Andreas Felix von Oefele, German historian and librarian (b. 1706)
- February 18 - Kristijonas Donelaitis, Lithuanian poet (b. 1714)
- March 26 - Charles I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (b. 1713)
- May 18 - Charles Hardy, British governor of Newfoundland
- June 3 - Thomas Hutchinson, American colonial governor of Massachusetts (b. 1711)
- July 4 - Prince Charles of Lorraine, Austrian military leader (b. 1712)
- July 14 - Charles Batteux, French philosopher (b. 1713)
- August 3 - Étienne Bonnot de Condillac, French philosopher (b. 1715)
- August 29 - Jacques-Germain Soufflot, French architect (b. 1713)
- September 4 - John Fielding, English magistrate and social reformer (b. 1721)
- September 8 - Enoch Poor, American Revolutionary general (b. 1736)
- October 17 - William Cookworthy, English chemist (b. 1705)
- November 26 - Sir James Denham Steuart, British economist (b. 1712)
- November 29 - Empress Maria Theresa of Austria (b. 1717)
- December 26 - John Fothergill, English physician (b. 1712)
- Thomas Dilworth, British cleric and writer Category:1780 ko:1780년 ms:1780

The Netherlands

The Netherlands (Dutch: Nederland; IPA pronunciation: /"ne:dərlant/) is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands that is formed by the Netherlands, the Netherlands Antilles and Aruba. (Dutch: Koninkrijk der Nederlanden). The Netherlands is a parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarch, located in northwestern Europe. It borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east. In many countries, the Netherlands is often referred to by the name Holland, and even within the Netherlands itself this name is occasionally used as an acceptable translation of the country's name. However widespread, this usage is technically incorrect, as "Holland" is actually a region in the central-western part of the Netherlands, divided into two provinces. Also, the English plural form 'the Netherlands' is a remnant from times when the country was not yet independent and united. See below under 'naming conventions'. The Netherlands is one of the most densely populated and geographically low-lying countries in the world (its name literally means "low country") and is famous for its dikes, windmills, wooden shoes, tulips, bicycles and social tolerance. Its liberal policies (towards drugs and prostitution among other things) receive international attention. The country is host to the International Court of Justice. The English adjective and noun for "of or relating to the Netherlands" is "Dutch," which is also the name of the Dutch language. In the Netherlands, "Netherlands" is sometimes used as an adjective. The origin of this local usage may be that the Dutch word for "Dutch" is Nederlands and to avoid confusion with the words "Duits" (in Dutch) and "Deutsch" (in German) that refer to the country Germany and its language.

Capital

Amsterdam is the hoofdstad ("capital city"), where according to the constitution, the sovereign must be sworn in. The Hague is the Netherlands regeringszetel or residentie (seat of government, residence of the monarch). It is the seat of government, the home of the monarch, and the location of most foreign embassies.

History

:For more details on this topic, see History of the Netherlands and Dutch monarchy. Under Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and king of Spain, the region was part of the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands, which also includes most of present-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and some land of France and Germany. In 1568 the Eighty Years' War started after the entire population had been condemned to death by the Holy See and confirmed by the king, and in 1579, the northern half of the Seventeen Provinces declared itself independent and formed the Union of Utrecht, which is seen as the foundation of the modern Netherlands. Philip II, the son of Charles V, was not prepared to let them go that easily. It would not be until 1648 that Spain would recognize Dutch independence. After gaining formal independence from the Spanish Empire under King Philip IV, the Dutch grew to become one of the major seafaring and economic powers of the 17th century during the period of the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands. In the era, referred to as the Dutch Golden Age, colonies and trading posts were established all over the globe. (See Dutch colonial empire) Many economic historians regard the Netherlands as the first thoroughly capitalist country in the world. In early modern Europe it featured the wealthiest trading city (Amsterdam) and the first full-time stock exchange. The inventiveness of the traders led to insurance and retirement funds as well as such less benign phenomena as the boom-bust cycle, the world's first asset-inflation bubble, the tulip mania of 1636-1637, and according to Murray Sayle, the world's first bear raider - Isaac le Maire, who forced prices down by dumping stock and then buying it back at a discount ("Japan Goes Dutch", London Review of Books [April 5, 2001]: 3-7). After briefly being incorporated in the First French Empire under Napoleon, the Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed in 1815, consisting of the present day Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg. In addition, the king of the Netherlands became hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg. Belgium rebelled and gained independence in 1830, while the personal union between Luxembourg and the Netherlands was severed in 1890 as a result of ascendancy laws which prevented Queen Wilhelmina from becoming Grand Duke. The Netherlands possessed several colonies, most notably the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) and Suriname (the latter was traded with the British for New Amsterdam, now known as New York). These 'colonies' were first administered by the Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company, both collective private enterprises. Three centuries later these companies got into financial trouble and the territories in which they operated were taken over by the Dutch government (in 1815 and 1791 respectively). Only then did they become official colonies. During the 19th century, The Netherlands was slow to industrialize compared to neighboring countries, mainly due to its unique infrastructure of waterways and reliance on wind power. After remaining neutral in World War I, over 100,000 Dutch Jews were murdered in the Holocaust of World War II, along with significant numbers of Dutch Roma (gypsies). After the war, the Dutch economy prospered again, being a member of the Benelux (Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg) and European Economic Community unions. The Netherlands was among the twelve founding members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and among the six founding members of the European Coal and Steel Community, which would later evolve into the European Union.

Naming conventions

The name Holland is often used, incorrectly, for The Netherlands, especially in other languages. The origin of the misnomer lies in the fact that the region of Holland was the economic powerhouse during the time of the United Provinces (1581-1795). After the Napoleonic era, Holland became a mere province of the Kingdom and was split into North and South Holland in 1840. Many people, especially from the northern and southern provinces, object to the use of the name Holland for The Netherlands. But to avoid confusion when addressing other nationals, the Dutch themselves often use the name 'Holland'. The plural "Netherlands" is actually an archaic term, referring to the time when it was a collection of regions that were not yet fully united. In The Netherlands itself the country is called Nederland (literally meaning "low country"), the people are called Nederlanders ("Dutch" in English) and the language is called Nederlands (again, "Dutch" in English); the -s in Nederlands is not a plural ending, but rather is cognate to the English suffix -ish. The English word "Dutch" is akin to the German word Deutsch, which originally meant "(Language) of the (common) people" in contrast with the medieval elite who spoke Latin. An old term for the language of The Netherlands is Diets or Nederdietsch. All these terms derive from what in Latin was known as Theodisca, from Germanic
- Þeudiskaz.

Politics

The Netherlands has been a parliamentary democracy since 1848 and a constitutional monarchy since 1815; before that it had been a republic from 1581 to 1806 (it was occupied by France between 1806 and 1815). The pro forma head of state, since 1980, is Queen Beatrix of the House of Orange-Nassau. The Dutch monarch has little political power, but serves mostly as a ceremonial figurehead to represent the nation. Dutch governments always consist of a coalition, as there is not (and has never been) a single political party large enough to get the majority vote. Formally, the queen appoints the members of the government. In practice, once the results of parliamentary elections are known, a coalition government is formed (in a process of negotiations that can take several months), after which the government formed in this way is officially appointed by the queen. The head of the government is the Prime Minister, in Dutch Minister President or Premier, a primus inter pares who is usually also the leader of the largest party in the coalition. The degree of influence the queen has on actual government decision making is a topic of ongoing speculation. The parliament consists of two houses. The 150 members of the Lower House (Tweede Kamer, or Second Chamber) are elected every four years in direct elections. The provincial parliaments are directly elected every 4 years as well. The members of the provincial parliaments vote (indirectly) for the less important Senate (Eerste Kamer, or First Chamber). Together, the First and Second Chamber are known as the Staten Generaal, the States General. Political scientists consider The Netherlands a classic example of a consociational state, at least in part caused by the necessity in the Netherlands since the middle ages for different cities to cooperate in order to fight the water (different cities were at the time like different countries by today's standards, and often at war). This necessity to reach an agreement despite differences is called the polder model in Dutch. Also, the Netherlands has long been a nation of traders and for international trade one has to be tolerant of the other person's culture. The Netherlands is a neutral country in most international affairs and thus managed to keep out of World War I (although this did not work in World War II). As a result, the Dutch have a 'friendly' reputation in other countries, to the point that bearers of a Dutch passport often have relatively little difficulty getting into other countries, for visits or even for emigration purposes. However, the early years of the 21st century have seen a political change with the right wing in politics gaining on the left. This is illustrated by the quick rise (and fall) of the LPF. Pim Fortuyn, its founder, held former cabinets responsible for the failing integration of immigrants. The present government is led by the cabinet Balkenende II. This cabinet got some critique about economic reforms and the immigration policies. On June 1 2005 the Dutch electorate voted in a referendum against the proposed EU Constitution by a majority of 61.6%, three days after the French had also voted against. See also: Prime Minister of the Netherlands, List of Prime Ministers of the Netherlands

Provinces

List of Prime Ministers of the Netherlands The Netherlands is divided into twelve administrative regions, called provinces, each under a Governor, who is called Commissaris van de Koningin (Commissionair of the Queen).
- Friesland - north west; capital Leeuwarden
- Groningen - north east; capital Groningen
- Drenthe - south of Groningen; capital Assen
- Overijssel - east central, south of Drenthe; capital Zwolle
- Flevoland - central, north of Utrecht; capital Lelystad
-