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Central Reservation

Central reservation

:For "central reservations" (such as for hotels), see call center. On divided roads, including expressways, motorways, or autobahns, the median (North American English) or central reservation (British English) is the area which separates opposing lanes of traffic. Some medians function secondarily as "green areas", beautifying roadways. Some jurisdictions mow their medians, others scatter wildflower seeds which germinate and re-seed themselves every year, while still others create extensive plantings of trees, shrubs, herbaceous perennials and decorative grasses. Where space is at a premium, dense hedges of shrubs filter the headlights of oncoming traffic and provide a resilient barrier. The central reservation in the United Kingdom is usually no wider than a single lane of traffic. In some cases, however, it is extended; for instance, if the road is running through hilly terrain, the carriageways may have to be built on different levels of the slope. Two examples of this on the UK road network are on a section of the M6 between Shap and Tebay, where the carriageways are several hundred metres apart allowing a local road to run between them, and on the M62 where the highest section through the Pennines famously splits wide enough for a farm in the central reservation. The other major exception is the A38(M) Aston Expressway, which is a single carriageway of seven lanes, where the median lane "moves" to account for traffic flow (a system known as tidal flow). tidal flow In North America, opposing lanes of traffic may be separated by several hundred meters of fields or forests outside of heavily populated areas, but converge to a lane's width in suburban areas and cities. In urban areas, concrete barriers (such as Jersey barriers) and guard rails (or guide rails) are used. On arterial roads, traffic may be separated by landscaped medians, or by islands of concrete marked off with curbs; some U.S. states, such as California, have made such concrete islands more attractive by setting rocks in them. One of the most famous medians is the famous "inverted" median of the Golden State Freeway (I-5) in the rugged Tehachapi Mountains between Los Angeles, California and the San Joaquin Valley. For several miles of the freeway, the median is inverted for several miles — that is, northbound traffic is in the western roadway, and southbound traffic is in the eastern road.

Trivia

- The median for Canal Street in New Orleans (and by extension, for all streets in Greater New Orleans) is called "neutral ground" by local residents. (See: Regional vocabularies of American English.) Category:Road infrastructure ja:中央分離帯

Call center

A call centre (Commonwealth English) or call center (American English) is a centralized office of a company that answers incoming telephone calls from customers (often for the purposes of product support), or that makes outgoing telephone calls to customers (telemarketing). Such an office may also respond to letters, faxes, e-mails and similar written correspondence. However, the term contact centre is often applied when such multiple functions are blended in one office. Call centres are generally set up as large rooms, with work stations that include a computer, a telephone set (or headset) hooked into a large telecom switch and one or more supervisor stations. It may stand by itself or be linked with other centres. It may also be linked to a corporate computer network, including main frames, microcomputers and LANs. Increasingly, the voice and data pathways into the centre are linked through a set of new technologies called computer telephony integration (CTI). Most major businesses use call centres to interact with their customers. Examples include utility companies, mail order catalogue firms, and customer support for computer hardware and software. Some businesses even service internal functions though call centres. Examples include help desks and sales support.

Mathematical theory

Queueing theory mathematics can be used to demonstrate that a single large call centre is more effective at answering calls than several smaller centres. The most dramatic improvements come when a large number of offices are centralised. The mathematical problems encountered in a call centre are generally statistical in nature and revolve around the probability that an arriving call will be answered by an available and appropriately trained person. Forecasting the call arrival rates and then scheduling the number of staff required on duty at particular times of the day are challenging problems faced by most call centre managers.

Accommodation

The centralised approach aims to rationalise the company's operations and reduce costs, whilst producing a standard, branded, front to the world. The approach naturally lends itself to large companies with a large, distributed customer base. Owing to the size of companies and their customer bases, these offices are often very large, such as converted warehouses.

Personnel management

Centralised offices means that large numbers of workers can be managed and controlled by a relatively small number of managers and support staff. They are often supported by computer technology that manages, measures and monitors the performance and activities of the workers. Call centre staff are some of the most heavily monitored and tracked groups of workers in the world. Reporting and monitoring in a call centre can be broken down into four major categories. These are real time reporting, historical reporting, quality monitoring and work force management. The types of information collected for a group of call centre agents are inclusive of: agents logged in, agents ready to take calls, agents available to take calls, agents in wrap up mode, average call duration, average call duration including wrap-up time, longest duration agent available, longest duration call in queue, number of calls in queue, number of calls offered, number of calls abandoned, average speed to answer, average speed to abandoned and service level (the percentage of calls answered in under a certain time period). Many call centres use work force management software, which is software that uses historical information coupled with projected need to generate automated schedules that will provide the correct mixture of staff with the correct skills necessary to service customers. Normally, personnel costs are the most significant expense of a call centre operation and even seemingly small inefficiencies can have significant cost issues. This is one of the major driving factors of outsourcing in the call centre industry. Inadequate computer systems can mean staff take one or two seconds longer than necessary to process a transaction. This can often be quantified in staff cost terms. This is often used as a driving factor in any business case to justify a complete system upgrade or replacement. For several factors, including the efficiency of the call centre, level of computer and telecom support that may be adequate for staff in a typical branch office may prove totally inadequate in a call centre.

Technology

Call Centres use a wide variety of different technologies to allow them to manage the large volumes of work that need to be managed by the call centre. These technologies ensure that agents are kept as productive as possible, and that calls are queued and processed as quickly as possible according to the desired levels of service. These include ;
- ACD (automatic call distribution)
- Agent performance analytics
- BTTC (best time to call)/ Outbound call optimization
- IVR (interactive voice response)
- CTI (computer telephony integration)
- Enterprise Campaign Management
- Outbound predictive dialer
- CRM (customer relationship management)
- CIM (customer interaction management) solutions (Also known as 'Unified' solutions)
- Email Management
- Chat and Web Collaboration
- Desktop Scripting Solutions
- TTS (text to speech)
- WFM (workforce management)
- Voice analysis
- Voice recognition
- Voicemail
- VoIP
- Speech Analytics

Call centre dynamics

Types of calls are often divided into outbound and inbound. Inbound calls are calls that are initiated by the customer to obtain information, report a malfunction or ask for help. This is substantially different from outbound calls where the agent initiates the call to a customer mostly with the aim to sell a product or a service to that customer. The staff of a call centre that is focused on support of a product is often organized into a mult-tier support model, with the first tier being largely unskilled workers who are trained to resolve issues using a simple script. If the first tier is unable to resolve an issue the issue is escalated to a more highly skilled second tier. In some cases, there may be three or more tiers of support. Typically the third tier of support is the engineers or developers of the product. Call centres have their critics as well. Some critics argue that the work atmosphere in such an environment is de-humanising. Others point to the low rates of pay and restrictive working practices of some employers. There has been much controversy over such things as restricting the amount of time that an employee can spend in the toilet. Furthermore, call centres have been the subject of complaints by callers who find the staff often do not have enough skill or authority to resolve problems. Owing to the highly technological nature of the operations in such offices, the close monitoring of staff activities is easy and widespread. This can be argued to be beneficial, to enable the company to better plan the workload and time of its employees. Some people have argued that such close monitoring breaches human rights to privacy. Yet another argument is that close monitoring and measurement by quantitative metrics can be counterproductive in that it can lead to poor customer service and a poor image of the company. Many call centres in the UK have been built in areas that are depressed economically. This means that the companies get cheap land and labour, and can often benefit from grants to encourage them to improve employment in a given area. There has also been a trend to move call centres to India, where there is a large pool of cheap English-speaking labour. This phenomenon has led to media reports of poor telephone connections and operators with insufficient local knowledge to do their job. But, call centres in India may be more professionally managed than their counterparts elsewhere in the world. Whereas a typical call centre employee in the developed world may be a high school drop out, the typical employee in an Indian call centre is a graduate. Another popular call centre site is the Philippines. Owing to its abundant English speakers that are college graduates and Americanized when it comes to accent and culture. The Philippines was an American colony for almost 50 years. Filipinos are said to be the best outsourcing site outside North America since the accent is nearer to that of American Consumers. Canada is also a popular call centre site, with the relatively low Canadian dollar and low telecommunication rates. SITEL Corporation, which operates call centres in Ottawa and St. Catharines, Ontario is one such company. Minacs is a good example of a Canadian owned and operated call centre that exploits the Canadian U.S. dollar exchange rate to its advantage. So is also ClientLogic, operating around the world. Around the world, there are a number of professional organisations forming to develop and promote call centre best practice management and operation, to overcome the negative aspects of a call centre.

Management of call centres

Management of call centres involves balancing the requirements of cost effectiveness and service. Callers do not wish to wait in exorbitantly long queues until they can be helped and so management must provide sufficient staff and inbound capacity to ensure that the quality of service is maintained. However, staff costs generally form more than half the cost of running a call centre and so management must minimise the number of staff present. To perform this balancing act, call centre managers make use of demand estimation, Telecommunication forecasting and dimensioning techniques to determine the level of staff required at any time. Managers must take into account staff tea and lunch breaks and must determine the number of agents required on duty at any one time.

Forecasting demand

Forecasting results are vital in making management decisions in call centres. Forecasting methods rely on data acquired from various sources including historical data, trend data and so on. Forecasting methods must predict the traffic intensity within the call centre in quarter hour increments and these results must be converted to staffing rosters. Special attention must be paid to the busy hour, i.e. those two half hour periods during a day when traffic intensity is at its highest. Forecasting methods can also be used to pre-empt a situation where equipment needs to be upgraded as traffic intensity has exceeded the maximum capacity of the call centre.

Call centre performance

There are many standard traffic measurements that can be performed on a call centre to determine its performance levels. However, the most important performance measures are:
- The average delay a caller may experience whilst waiting in a queue
- The mean conversation time, otherwise referred to as Average Talk Time (ATT)
- The mean dealing time, otherwise referred to as Average Handling Time (equal to ATT plus wrap up time)
- The percentage calls answered within a determined time frame (referred to as a Service Level or SL%)

Refinements of call centres

There are many refinements to the generic call centre model. Each refinement helps increase the efficiency of the call centre thereby allowing management to make better decisions involving economy and service. The following list contains some examples of call centre refinements:
- Predictive Dialling – Computer software attempts to predict the time taken for an agent to help a caller. The software begins dialling another caller before the agent has finished the previous call. This, because not every call will be connected (think of busy or not answered calls) and also because of the time it takes to set up the call (usually around 20 seconds before someone answers). Frequently, predictive dialers will dial more callers than there are agents, counting on the fact that not every line will be answered. When the line is answered and no agent is available, it is held in a retention queue for a short while. When still no agent has become available, the call is hung up and classified as a nuisance call. The next time the client is called an agent will be reserved for the caller.
- Multi-Skilled Staff – In any call centre, there will be members of staff that will be more skilled in areas than others. A Voice Response Unit can be used to allow the caller to select the reason for his call. Management software, called an Automatic Call Distributor, must then be used to route calls to the appropriate agent. Alternatively, it has been found that a mix of general and specialist agent creates a good balance.
- Queuing Systems – The selection of a queuing system type is a very important decision in a call centre as it determines the level of quality of service. Queueing systems in call centres are usually described as M/M/N type queues where N is the number of agents. The preferred method of queuing is a FIFO (First In First Out) model, as it causes minimum delay to callers.
- Prioritisation of Callers – Classification of callers according to priority is a very important refinement. Detecting emergency calls or callers that are reattempting to contact a call centre are examples of callers that could be given a higher priority.
- Automatic Number Identification – This allows agents to determine who is calling before they answer the call. Greeting a caller by name and obtaining his/her information in advance adds to the quality of service and helps decrease the conversation time.

Additional issues in call centres

There are many other issues that have to be planned for when managing a call centre. A few of these issues are listed below:
- Planning for failure of equipment
- Need for flexibility in meal-times
- Need for job variety and training
- Job exhaustion and stress
- Staff turnover

Variations on the generic call centre model

The various components in a call centre discussed in the previous sections are the generic form of a call centre. There are many variations on the model developed above. A few of the variations are listed below:
- Remote Agents – An alternative to housing all agents in a central facility is to use remote agents. These agents work from home and use a Basic Rate ISDN access line to communicate with a central computing platform. Remote agents are more cost effective as they don’t have to travel to work, however the call centre must still cover the cost of the ISDN line.
- Temporary Agents – Temporary agents are useful as they can be called upon if demand increases more rapidly than planned. They are offered a certain number of quarter hours a month. They are paid for the amount they actually work and the difference between the amount offered and the amount guaranteed is also paid. Managers must use forecasting methods to determine the number of hours offered so that the difference is minimised.
- Virtual Call Centres – Virtual Calls Centres are created using many smaller centres in different locations and connecting them to one another. The advantage of virtual call centres is that improve service levels, provide emergency backup and enable extended operating hours over isolated call centres. There are two methods used to route traffic around call centres namely, pre-delivery and post-delivery. Pre-delivery involves using an external switch to route the calls to the appropriate centre and post-delivery enables call centres to route a call they’ve received to another call centre.
- Interaction Centres – As call centres evolve and deal with more media than telephony alone, some have taken to the term, "interaction centre". Email, Web Callback and more are gradually being added to the role.

References

[1] Kennedy I., Call Centres, School of Electrical and Information Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand, 2003. [2] Masi D.M.B., Fischer M.J., Harris C.M., Numerical Analysis of Routing Rules for Call Centers, Telecommunications Review, 1998.

Motorway

A motorway (in the United Kingdom, Ireland, New Zealand and some Commonwealth nations) is both a type of road and a classification. Motorways are highways designed to carry a large volume of traffic where a normal road would not suffice or would be unsafe, usually between cities. In the UK they are predominantly dual-carriageway roads, usually with three lanes in each direction, although four-lane and two-lane carriageways are also common, and all have grade-separated access. Equivalent terms in other countries include autoroute, Autobahn, freeway, autostrada, autopista, motorvej,autópálya, motorväg and autoput.

Regulations

autoput ]] For a road to be classified as motorway a number of conditions must be fulfilled. The following conditions generally apply:
- Motorways must be accessed at junctions by slip roads off the sides of the main carriageway;
- Separate motorways are joined by link-roads at an interchange, the object of which is to allow traffic to change route without stopping or slowing significantly;
- Traffic lights are not permitted (except at toll booths and certain small interchanges);
- The start and end of a motorway must have signposted entry and exit points;
- Certain types of transport are banned, typically pedestrians, bicycles, learner drivers, horses, agricultural vehicles, underpowered vehicles (e.g. small scooters, invalid carriages). In the UK and the Republic of Ireland there are further restrictions:
- The central reservation must remain unbroken (an exception being the Aston Expressway in Birmingham, which has none);
- Emergency phones must be provided at a regular distance;
- A 'minimum speed limit' may apply. Note that these only apply to roads directly designated as motorways. Roads may also be indirectly designated as such, see #Inheritance below. The construction and surfacing of motorways is generally of a higher standard than conventional roads, and maintenance is carried out more frequently; in particular, motorways drain water very quickly to reduce hydroplaning. Many roads are of near-motorway quality, but are not classified as such (generally for breaking one or more of the above rules). These are referred to as dual carriageways, which in Britain usually have the same 70 mph (110 km/h) limit (the limit in Ireland and New Zealand is the regular 100 km/h (65 mph) limit). They may be subject to a lower speed limit (e.g. in urban areas). hydroplaning]] In Ireland and the UK, motorways are denoted by blue signage and an M-prefixed or suffixed road number. Speed limits are generally higher than on ordinary roads, with an overall limit of 70 mph (110 km/h) for cars in the UK. Some types of vehicle may be subject to a lower limit, while often sections of motorway are subject to lower speed limits due to local driving conditions. Lanes closest to the edge of the road are intended for general driving – these are hence the "inside" lanes, while the lanes closest to the median are intended for overtaking (passing) slower-moving vehicles – hence they are termed "outside" lanes. Some vehicles, notably heavy goods vehicles, are not permitted to use the rightmost lane on a three (or more) lane motorway. Roads in the Republic of Ireland have had metric speed limits since 20 January 2005 to conform to European convention and to existing directional signage, which has long shown metric distances. The new speed limit introduced for motorways is 120 km/h (75 mph). In New Zealand motorways were historically distinguished from other roads with green signage. This changed with the establishment of Transit New Zealand which extended the use of green signs to the entire state highway network. The speed limit on motorways is fixed at the top limit for state highways, 100 km/h (65 mph). This rule is most in evidence in Wellington where Centennial Highway in the Ngauranga Gorge is not designated as a motorway because of the steep gradient, general usage and slow-speed junctions, despite leading directly into the Johnsonville-Porirua motorway. The Conservative Party had proposed increasing the UK motorway speed limit to 80 mph (130 km/h), should they gained power at the past election. Many road safety groups feel this would be a good idea, as it more closely represents the normal (and, they claim, safe) driving practice of the majority of motorway users. As in Germany but unlike in some other countries, drivers are not permitted to pass on an inside lane (a lane further from the median) unless traffic in the 'faster' lanes is stationary. With a touch of black humour, the practice is popularly known as undertaking.

Features

black humour The road surface is generally asphalt ('black top') or concrete ('white top'). White dashed lines denote the lane separation, while an unbroken white line is painted alongside the median (usually known as the 'central reservation'). A white line (or in the Republic of Ireland, a yellow line) on the edge of the slow lane marks the edge of the hard shoulder. The hard shoulder is not used for traffic and is reserved for breakdowns or emergency maneuvers. Generally lanes closer to the centre of the road (outer lanes) are used for overtaking, while lanes near the edge of the road (inner lanes) are used for slower traffic (see diagram on right), as in the UK it is illegal to overtake on the left (commonly known as undertaking) except in emergencies, when signs indicate drivers may do so, or when traffic is moving slowly. Traffic should always use the lefthandmost lane possible. Generally this means a vehicle should use the lefthand lane next to the hard shoulder, and use the other two lanes only for overtaking manouvers, moving back into the left lane once they have passed the slower vehicle(s). In heavy traffic, it is acceptable to cruise in the middle lane to pass slower vehicles to avoid constant lane changes. A significant problem on motorways is the 'middle lane hog', a driver who drives in the middle lane when there is no reason to do so. This can be very frustrating for other drivers. Faster vehicles approaching in the left hand lane have to manouver across four lanes of the motorway rather than two to pass such a vehicle, since undertaking is forbidden. Drivers of heavy goods vehicles can be especially frustrated by a middle lane hog, as their vehicles are not permitted to use the righthandmost lane under normal circumstances. Since undertaking is forbidden, a heavy goods vehicle cannot legally pass a slower moving vehicle in the centre lane. In the UK lanes in a given direction are numbered from left to right as lane 1, lane 2, lane 3, etc. Lane 1 is the lane next to the hard shoulder. Other features are crash barriers, cat's eyes and increasingly, textured road markings (a similar concept to rumble-strips). In the UK it is a requirement that all motorways have emergency telephones at regular (usually one-mile) intervals, which connect directly to the police. The most basic motorway junction is a two-lane flyover with four slip-roads, two on each side of the motorway, to exit or enter. A simple crossroads or roundabout is present on either end of the flyover. A rather large version of a roundabout, using two curved flyovers is sometimes used to present a single large junction for users of the slip-roads or crossing road. The slip roads leading off the motorway are known as 'exit sliproads', those leading onto the motorway as 'entry sliproads'. The precise sliproad at any junction may be identified by reference to the direction of the carriageway, for example 'northbound entry slip'. An Irish invention is the signal-controlled roundabout which is often used in these situations. A further degree of complexity is present in Britain with varying types of Spaghetti Junction-style interchanges.

Location and construction

Major intercity or national routes are often built or upgraded to motorway standard. Motorways are also commonly used for ring roads around cities or bypasses of built-up areas. Examples of ring-road motorways are the M25 around London and the M50 around Dublin. In Britain there are plans to improve many motorways as well as to upgrade some roads to motorway status. In the Republic of Ireland, the National Roads Authority has been connecting main cities with motorways as part of a six-year National Development Plan. The European Union has part-funded many motorway projects in the past, as part of a Trans-European Transport Networks, and there are plans to invest billions of euro in such projects in the next ten years. euro] The newest UK motorway is the M6 Toll, bypassing Birmingham and Wolverhampton, which opened in 2004 and is the only completely toll motorway in England. There are tolled sections of motorway on the M4 and M48, where they cross the the River Severn at the Severn crossings.

Inheritance

In the UK, certain types of traffic are not permitted on motorways. Thus, to avoid people being forced to travel illegally, there are a number of rules about stretches of road which must be designated as motorways. In all cases, there must be an escape route for traffic not wishing or not permitted to enter the motorway. As a result, the motorway technically begins as soon as the escape route has diverged from it; for example at a grade-separated junction, the motorway starts at the junction with the exiting slip road, and the opposite slip road is also part of the motorway for this and the following reason. The exception was the A1(M) near Leeds, which was "illegal", as pedestrians could legally cross 300 yards from the start, but cyclists and other types of traffic not permitted on motorways had no way of turning back. The escape route was the Boot & Shoe a mile before. This is remedied by the A1(M) extension. As a result, this creates a less-restrictive set of rules for the standard of the road. Roads whose only destination is a motorway must be assigned motorway status, notwithstanding the possibility of them not being built to normal motorway standards. For example, the A48(M) motorway outside Cardiff begins after the last exit to St Mellons, since by staying on the dual carriageway you cannot get anywhere other than the M4 eastbound; however, the A48(M) is a motorway-grade highway. On the other hand, there are roads such as the A6144(M), a 1.2 mi (2 km) long single-carriageway road, which are classified as such since they lead inescapably to the motorway (in this case, the M60).

Route numbering

In the United Kingdom, motorways sometimes adopt the number of the nearest "A" road heading in broadly the same direction. However this is just for convenience, and about half of motorways don't bypass the A road with the same number - Motorways follow their own zonal pattern, similar to the A+B road zones, but with the boundarys formed by the 1-digit motorways (and various A roads where there are gaps), as opposed to the one-digit A roads (NB, the 4 zone seems to be hourglass shaped and motorways west of the M5 but south of the M4 have 4-zone numbers). The A road usually continues to also use that number, thus allowing both an "A1" road and "M1" motorway to exist as full complementary routes. In the Republic of Ireland, motorway and national route numbering does not follow the same convention. As of 2005, all motorways in the Republic are part of, or form, National Primary Routes. These routes are numbered in series, using numbers from 1 to 33 (and separately from the series - 50), which apart from on motorways, carry an "N" prefix. In the Republic of Ireland, motorways use this route number (of the national route they form part of) with an M prefix rather than N. In most cases, the motorway has been built as a bypass of a road previously forming the national route (e.g. M7 bypassing roads previously forming the N7) - the bypassed roads are reclassified as Regional Roads, although updated signposting may not be provided for some time, and adherence to signage colour conventions is lax (regional roads have black-on-white directional signage, national routes use white-on-green). The M50, an entirely new national route, is an exception to the normal inheritance process - as it does not replace a road previously carrying an "N" number. The M50 was nevertheless legislated as the "N50" route (despite having no non-motorway sections). The M50's designation was chosen as a recognisable unique number (As of 2005 N34 is the next unused National Primary Route designation).

External links

- [http://www.dft.gov.uk/ Department for Transport] (United Kingdom)
- [http://www.nra.ie/ National Roads Authority] (Republic of Ireland)
- [http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/transport/index_en.html European Union Transport Policy]
- [http://www.cbrd.co.uk/motorway/ CBRD Motorway Database]
- [http://www.uk-roads.org.uk/ UK Roads Portal]
- [http://pathetic.org.uk/ Pathetic Motorways]
- [http://www.learn2live.co.uk/ Learn-2-Live Campaign] for compulsory motorway tuition for every newly qualified driver
- [http://web.tiscali.it/archenzo/motorway/enmotor_way.html New concept in motorway design]
- of "inheriting" motorway status - the A6 road between the Tramway Lane roundabout and the M61/M65 junction. (Zoom out to see it in motorway colour.) Category:Road infrastructure Category:Road transport Category:Transportation in Europe Category:Rights of way ja:高速道路 zh-cn:高速公路

Autobahn

:This article is about the German, Austrian and Swiss road system. For the Kraftwerk album, see Autobahn (album). Autobahn (album) Autobahn (album) Autobahn (pronounced in IPA) is the German word for a major high-speed road confined to motor vehicles and having full control of access, similar to a motorway or freeway in English-speaking countries. In English, the word "Autobahn" is used to refer only to these roads in German-speaking countries, usually refers to the German Autobahn specifically. German autobahns have no general speed limit (though about 50% of the total length is subject to local and/or conditional limits), but the "recommended speed" is 130 km/h (81 mph). Austrian and Swiss autobahns have general speed limits of 130 km/h and 120km/h, respectively. In German, the word is pronounced as described above, and its plural is Autobahnen; in English, however, the segment "auto" is typically pronounced as in other English words such as "automobile", and the plural is almost always autobahns. The official name of the Autobahn in Germany is Bundesautobahn (BAB) .

Construction

Germany

Similar to such freeways in other countries, autobahns have multiple lanes of traffic in each direction, separated by a central barrier with grade-separated junctions and access restricted to certain types of motor vehicles only. The first german Autobahn was completed in 1932 between Cologne and Bonn. Each carriageway was flanked by bankettes about 60 cm (2 ft) in width, constructed of varying materials; right-hand bankettes on many autobahns were later retrofitted to 120 cm (4 ft) in width when it was realized cars needed the additional space to pull off the autobahn safely. In the postwar years, a thicker asphaltic concrete cross-section with full paved hard shoulders came into general use. The top design speed was approximately 160 km/h (99 mph) in flat country but lower design speeds could be used in hilly or mountainous terrain. A flat-country autobahn constructed to published design standards in use during the Nazi period could support hands-off speeds on curves of about 150 km/h (93 mph). asphaltic concrete All autobahns are named by using the capital letter "A" followed by a blank and a number (for example "A 8"). The "main autobahns" going all across Germany have a single number usually even-numbered for east-west routes and odd-numbered for north-south routes. Some roads may not be as easily distinguished as strictly either as it would be, for example, in the United States whose major roads follow routes that are clearly horzontal or vertical when viewed on a conventional map. Shorter autobahns that are of regional importance (e.g. connecting two major cities or regions within Germany) have a double number (e.g. A 24, connecting Berlin and Hamburg). The system is as follows:

- A 10 to A 19 are in eastern Germany (Berlin, Saxony-Anhalt, parts of Saxony and Brandenburg)
- A 20 to A 29 in northern and northeastern Germany
- A 30 to A 39 in Lower Saxony (northwestern Germany)
- A 40 to A 49 in Rhine Main and Rhine-Ruhr Areas
- A 50 to A 59 in western Germany
- A 60 to A 69 in Rhineland-Palatinate, Saarland and Hesse
- A 70 to A 79 in Thuringia, northern Bavaria and parts of Saxony
- A 80 to A 89 in Baden-Württemberg
- A 90 to A 99 in (southern) Bavaria
There are also very short autobahns with just local importance (e.g. beltways or the A 555 from Cologne to Bonn) that usually have three numbers the first one of which is similar to the system above, depending on the region.

Switzerland

In Switzerland, it is impractical to navigate using the autobahn numbers; instead it is useful to steer towards the biggest city that lies in the intended target region; this is because traffic signs display the city names much more prominently than in Germany. Another specialty is that in Switzerland the exit gateways appear much more often than in other countries.

History

Germany

Bonn Bonn Bonn Autobahns were first conceived, planned, and built on a limited scale in Germany during the Weimar Republic era in the 1920s, but apart from the AVUS in Berlin, construction was slow, and most projected sections did not progress much beyond the planning stage due to economic problems and a lack of political support. One project was the private initiative HaFraBa which planned a "car only road" (the name autobahn was created in 1929) crossing Germany from Hamburg in the North via central Frankfurt am Main to Basel in Switzerland. Just days after the 1933 Nazi takeover, Hitler enthusiastically embraced an ambitious autobahn construction project and appointed Fritz Todt the Inspector General of German Road Construction. Soon, over 100,000 laborers worked at construction sites all over Germany. As well as providing employment and improved infrastructure, necessary for economic recovery efforts, the project was also a great success for propaganda purposes. Another aim of the autobahn project was to strengthen centralized rule and national unity (see Nazi architecture). The autobahns formed the first limited-access, high-speed road network in the world, with the first section from Frankfurt am Main to Darmstadt opening in 1935. This straight section was used for high speed record attempts by the Grand Prix racing teams of Mercedes-Benz and Auto Union until a fatal accident involving popular German race driver Bernd Rosemeyer in early 1938. During World War II, the central reservation of some autobahns was paved to allow their conversion into auxiliary airports. Aircraft were either stashed in numerous tunnels or camouflaged in nearby woods. However, for the most part, the autobahns were not militarily significant, and most military and economic freight continued to be carried by rail. After the war, numerous sections of the autobahns were in bad shape, severely damaged by heavy Allied bombing and military demolition. Furthermore, thousands of kilometers of autobahns remained unfinished, their construction brought to a halt by 1942 due to the increasing demands of the war effort. In West Germany, following the war, most existing autobahns were soon repaired. The finishing of the incomplete sections took longer, with some stretches being opened to traffic only in the 1980s. Some sections cut by the Iron Curtain in 1945 were only completed after German reunification in 1990. Finally, certain sections were never completed, as more advantageous routes were found. Some of these sections stretch across the landscape forming a unique type of modern ruin, often easily visible on satellite photographs. The autobahns in East Germany and Poland after 1945 were grossly neglected in comparison to those in West Germany and Western Europe in general. They received minimal maintenance between 1945 and 1989. However, they did not deteriorate because car ownership, and hence traffic volume, in Communist countries was much lower than in the West. During the 1950s, the West German government restarted the construction program; it continuously invested in new sections and in improvements to older ones.

Switzerland

A short stretch of autobahn around the Lucerne area in 1955 created Switzerland's first autobahn. For Expo 1964, an autobahn was built between Lausanne and Geneva. The Bern-Lenzburg route was inaugurated in 1967.

Current density

Lenzburg Lenzburg Today, Germany's autobahn network has a total length of about 11,980 km (as of January 1, 2003), second only to the United States' Interstate Highway System. The Swiss autobahn network has a total length of 1,638 km (as of 2000) and has, by an area of 41,290 sq km, also the highest density of the world. The Swiss autobahn network has not yet been completed; priority has been given to the most important routes, especially the north-south and the west-east axis. The gaps in the autobahn network are apparent in the graphic.

Germany

Many sections of Germany's autobahns are modern, containing three lanes in addition to an emergency lane. Some other sections remain in their original state, with two lanes, no emergency lane, short ramps, etc. Such a combination of the two types of autobahn can be seen on the A 9 autobahn (Munich-Berlin). Heading out from Nuremberg, the autobahn starts off as a modern, three lane + emergency lane autobahn. However, after heading into Thuringia, which was formerly part of East Germany, parts of the autobahn are no wider than two lanes and no emergency lane exists (only rare emergency bays with a telephone post in orange-yellow). Ongoing roadworks will eventually bring the entire A 9 to three-lane standard.

Switzerland

Swiss autobahns very often have an emergency lane except in tunnels. Some newly built autobahn sections, like the lone section crossing the Jura region in the north-western part of Switzerland has only emergency bays. This may be due to the improved reliability of automobiles.

Speed limits

Germany

Jura The German autobahns are famous for being some of the few public roads in the world without blanket speed limits for cars and motorcycles. Lack of blanket speed limits does not appear to negatively impact the road safety of autobahns compared with other German roads or motorways in other countries. Perhaps this is due in part because traffic can be heavy enough to restrict speeds to little above the typical motorway speeds found elsewhere. Certainly, speed limits do apply at junctions and other danger points, like sections under construction or in need of repair. Speed limits at non-construction sites are generally 100 km/h (62 mph) or 120 km/h (75 mph); construction sites have a usual speed limit of 80 km/h (50 mph) but may be as low as 60 km/h (37 mph) or even 40 km/h (25 mph). Certain stretches have separate, and lower, speed limits used in cases of wet lanes. A hard limit is imposed on some vehicles: Some limits were imposed to reduce pollution and noise. Limits can also be put into place temporarily through dynamic traffic guidance systems that display the according traffic signs. If there is no speed limit, the recommended speed is 130 km/h (81 mph), referred to in German as the Richtgeschwindigkeit; this speed is not a binding limit, but being involved in an accident at higher speeds can lead to being assigned part of the fault due to "increased operating danger". On average, about half of the total length of the German autobahn network has no speed limit, about one third has a permanent limit, and the remaining parts have a temporary limit for a number of reasons. It is important to remember that in places without a general limit, there are mostly also no restrictions on overtaking. Therefore, those traveling at high speeds may often encounter trucks running side-by-side at only about 80 km/h (50 mph). In theory, trucks are not allowed to overtake others unless they drive 20 km/h (12 mph) faster than whomever they are overtaking, but truck drivers are generally under pressure to arrive in time, and such laws are rarely enforced for economic and political reasons, as many trucks are from foreign countries. On most days, the right lane of a typical autobahn is crowded with trucks, and too often, trucks pull out to overtake. (An exception is Sundays, on which trucks usually aren't allowed to drive except for trucks with perishable goods and certain other exceptions.) In some zones with only two lanes in both directions there is no speed limit, but a special overtaking restriction for trucks and/or cars pulling trailers. Modern cars easily reach well over 200 km/h (124 mph), and most large car manufacturers follow a gentlemen's agreement by artificially limiting the top speed of their cars to 250 km/h (155 mph) for safety reasons (inexperienced drivers and risk of tires failing, especially when underinflated). Yet, these limiters can easily be removed, so speeds over 300 km/h (186 mph) are not uncommon nowadays. But due to common speed limits and other traffic, such speeds are rarely attainable. Most unlimited sections of the autobahn are located in the south of Germany, where many of the large automobile production companies such as Mercedes-Benz, Audi, Porsche and BMW reside. The A 8 at Stuttgart is one such example. If your car or motorcycle can not reach a minimum speed of 60 km/h (37 mph), it is not allowed to use an autobahn. This is not a high limit today, of course, but it prevents very small cars (e.g. Quads) and motorcycles (e.g. Mofas) from using autobahns.

Austria and Switzerland

Autobahns in Austria (130 km/h; 81 mph) and Switzerland (120 km/h; 75 mph) have normal speed limits. The minimum speed in Austria is 60 km/h (37 mph), in Switzerland 80 km/h (50 mph), starting at 1st January 2006. Previously it was 60 km/h.

Notable traffic laws

- Autobahns in Austria and Germany may only be used by powered vehicles that have a designed maximum speed exceeding 60 km/h (Switzerland: 80 km/h).
- The right lane must be used when it is free (Rechtsfahrgebot)
- Overtaking on the right is forbidden (except in traffic jams with caution)
- It is unlawful to stop for any reason except traffic jams and being involved in an accident. Running out of gasoline and car breakdowns are considered preventible and are consequently fined. This includes stopping on emergency lanes. 2006
- The distance to the vehicle in front (in meters) should be at least half the speed (in km/h) at all times (e.g. at least 60 meters at 120 km/h). This corresponds to a "lead time" of just under 2 seconds. As a reference: The white-and-black reflection posts to the right have a distance of 50 m to each other.
- Contrary to popular belief, it is illegal to flash headlights or left turn signals at a car moving slowly on the left lane.

Film

- Reichsautobahn (documentary/b&w) by Hartmut Bitomsky (West Germany, 1986) Category:German loanwords Category:Nazi architecture Category:Transportation in Europe Category:Motorways in Switzerland Category:Road infrastructure

British English

British English (BrE) is a term used to differentiate the form of the written English language in the United Kingdom from other forms of the English language. It is also used by some, particularly Americans, to describe the spoken versions of English used within England. The term is rarely heard within the United Kingdom. British people say that they speak English - but never British - and that others speak English with an accent, such as a 'South African accent'. When speaking, they will often drop the word "accent" and simply say Canadian, American, Jamaican and so on. A less ambiguous term is English English. Although British English can describe the formal written English used in the United Kingdom, the forms of spoken English used in the United Kingdom vary considerably more than in most other areas of the world where English is spoken. Dialects and accents vary not only within regions of the UK, for example in Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales, but also within England. The written form of the language, as taught in schools, is universally Commonwealth English with a slight emphasis on a few words that might be more common in some areas than in others. For example, although the words "wee" and "small" are interchangeable, one is more likely to see "wee" written by a Scot than by a Londoner. For historical reasons dating back to the rise of London in the 9th century, the variety of language spoken in London and the East Midlands became the standard English within the Court and thus the form of language generally accepted for use in the law, government, literature and education of the British Isles. Like other forms of languages, the English used in Britain changes over time. Although British English is often used in the United States to denote the English spelling and lexicon used outside the US, the term Commonwealth English is more accurate for this purpose. The British spellings were most famously recorded in Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language (1755). Historically, the widespread usage of English across the world is attributed to the power once held by the British Empire, and hence the most common form of English used by the British ruling class was the English used in south-east England (in the area around the capital city London, and the main English university towns of Oxford and Cambridge). This form of the language is associated with Received Pronunciation (RP), which is still regarded by many people outside the UK (especially in the United States) as "the British accent". From the second half of the 20th century to the present day, the preeminence of the English language has largely been linked to the economic, military and political dominance of the United States in world affairs, and American English is often regarded as the most prominent form of English in the world today, especially with the large amount of U.S. cultural products (such as films, books, and music) around the world, which is not matched in volume by those from other English-speaking nations. The form of English spoken and particularly written in the United Kingdom still has a major cultural influence on the English used in many Commonwealth countries, including Australia, South Africa, and India, as well as in the European Union. Although British English is taught and used in the former British colonies of Hong Kong, Singapore and Malaysia, American English is often taught in Chinese and Japanese schools, and in other schools throughout Asia.

-ise versus -ize

Words of the sort organize/organise and their derivatives can be spelt with either s or z in British English. The -ize forms are promoted by the Oxford English Dictionary. British English with -ize is sometimes known as OED spelling, and may be marked by the registered IANA language tag 'en-GB-oed'. It is the spelling used by the Encyclopaedia Britannica, by the United Nations, and by many international organizations and academic publications. The -ize forms were used by the London Times until the mid-1980s. The -ise forms are now generally used by the British government, by the European Union and mostly taught in the British school system. They are far more prevalent in common usage. Pam Peters (2004, -ize/-ise) relates that British National Corpus data indicates the ratio of popularity for -ise forms to -ize forms in Britain is 3:2.

Traffic

In many parts of the world traffic is generally organized, flowing in lanes of travel for a particular direction, with interchanges, traffic signals, or signage at intersections to facilitate the orderly and timely flow of traffic. Traffic can be separated into vehicular, non-vehicular (bicycling), and pedestrian classes of traffic. Vehicles of the same class share their speed limits and share easement with one another. Cooperative signaling arrangements can also be made with representatives of other classes of traffic. Organized traffic typically reduces travel time. Though vehicles wait at some intersections, wait time at others is much shorter. Organized traffic degenerates to disorganized traffic with an unexpected occurrence, be it road construction, an accident, or obstructions in the road such as an animal, debris, or other objects. On particularly busy freeways, a disruption can persist until traffic thins. William Beaty observed persistent disruptions and named the phenomenon traffic waves. Simulations of organized traffic frequently involve queuing theory, stochastic processes and equations of mathematical physics applied to traffic flow.

Basic Features

Several countries have very complicated traffic laws and others rely on each driver's common sense. However, some basic features of traffic seem to apply to most cultures. Those features are described below.

Directionality

Traffic going in opposite directions should be separated in such a way that they do not block each other's way. The most basic rule regarding this concept is which side of the road should be used for travel. See "Which side?" below for more information. In more sophisticated systems such as large cities, this concept is further extended: some streets are marked as being "one-way", and on those streets all traffic must flow in only one direction. A driver wishing to reach a destination he already passed must use other streets in order to return. Usage of one-way streets, despite the inconveniences it can bring to individual drivers, can greatly improve traffic flow since they usually allow traffic to move faster and tend to simplify intersections.

Lanes

traffic flow with many lanes and heavy traffic.]] When a street is wide enough to accommodate several vehicles travelling side by side, it is usual for traffic to organize itself into "lanes", that is, parallel corridors of traffic. Some roads have one lane for each direction of travel and other have multiple lanes for each direction. Some countries apply pavement markings to clearly indicate the limits of each lane and the direction of travel that it must be used for. In other countries lanes have no markings at all and drivers follow them mostly by instinct rather than visual stimulus. On roads that have multiple lanes going in the same direction, drivers may usually shift amongst lanes as they please, but they must do so in a way that does not cause inconvenience to other drivers. Driving cultures vary greatly on the issue of "lane ownership": in some countries, drivers traveling in a lane will be very protective of their right to travel in it while on others drivers will routinely expect other drivers to shift back and forth.

Right of Way ("who goes first")

Vehicles will often come into conflict with other vehicles because their intended courses of travel intersect, that is, they get in each other's way. The general principle that establishes who has the right to go first is called "right of way". It establishes who has the right to use the conflicting part of the road and who has to wait until the other driver does so. Different countries have different rules that establish who has the right of way, but a common pattern is for one of the roads (usually the smaller road) to have a marking indicating that it should "yield" to drivers on the other road. This can be in the form of a STOP sign, dotted lines painted on the pavement or other devices. Drivers approaching from the road with the STOP sign (or equivalent device) are required to stop before the intersection and only proceed when a breach occurs in the other road's traffic. Some countries also include pedestrian crossings near the STOP signs, and in this case the approaching drivers must also allow the pedestrian to cross the street before advancing. Another way to resolve the right-of-way conflict is to establish a general rule such as the French prioritè-a-droit (priority to the right). This rule establishes that the right of way belongs to the driver who is coming from the right, and the driver coming from the left should yield to him. This rule is unambiguous, but may lead to some counterintuitive situations, such as in T-intersections, where, strangely enough, traffic going straight through the top segment of the T must yield to entering traffic that comes from the vertical leg of the T. parallel parallel, Austria.]] In most modern cities the traffic signal is used to establish the right of way on the busy roads. Its primary idea is to give each road a slice of time in which its traffic may use the intersection in an organized way. The intervals of time assigned for each road may be adjusted to take into account factors such as difference in volume of traffic.

Turning

Vehicles will often want to cease to travel in a straight line and turn onto another road. The vehicle's directional signals (blinkers) are often used as a way to announce one's the intention to turn, thus alerting other drivers. The actual usage of blinkers vary greatly amongst countries. Turning traffic must usually yield the right of way to oncoming traffic - on right-driving countries, vehicles must yield when performing a left turn; on left-driving countries vehicles must yield when performing a right turn. This will usually mean that turning traffic will have to stop in order to wait for a breach to turn, and this might cause inconvenience for vehicles that follow them but do not want to turn. This is why sometimes "protected lanes" for turning are provided, that is, a special lane where vehicles can wait without standing in the way of traffic. On busier intersections where a protected lane would be ineffective or cannot be built, turning may be entirely prohibited, and drivers will be required to "drive around the block" in order to accomplish the turn. On roads with multiple lanes, turning traffic is generally expected to move to the lane closest to the direction they wish to turn. For example, traffic intending to turn right will usually move to the rightmost lane before the intersection. Likewise, left-turning traffic will move to the leftmost lane. Exceptions to this rule may exist where for example the traffic authority decides that the two rightmost lanes will be for turning right, in which case drivers may take whichever of them to turn. On certain parts of the world traffic will adapt to informal patterns that rise naturally rather than by force of authority: for example, in Brazil and elsewhere it is common for drivers to observe (and trust) the turn signals used by other drivers in order to make turns from other lanes. For example if several vehicles on the right lane are all turning right, a vehicle may come from the next-to-right lane and turn right as well, doing so in parallel with the other right-turning vehicles.

Pedestrian Crossings

Brazil, showing a semaphore-controlled pedestrian crossing, and several red lights on several intersections ahead.]] Pedestrians must often cross from one side of a road to the other, and in doing so may come into the way of vehicles traveling on the road. In many places pedestrians are entirely left to look after themselves, that is, they must observe the road and cross when they can see that no traffic will threaten them. Busier cities usually paint "pedestrian crossings", which are strips of the road where pedestrians are expected to cross. The actual appearance of pedestrian crossings varies greatly, but the two most common appearances are: (1) a series of parallel white stripes or (2) two long horizontal white lines. The former is usually preferred, as it stands out more conspicuously against the dark pavement. Some pedestrian crossings also accompany a traffic signal which will make vehicles stop at regular intervals so the pedestrians can cross. Some countries have "intelligent" pedestrian signals, where the pedestrian must push a button in order to assert his intention to cross. The traffic signal will use that information to schedule itself, that is, when no pedestrians are present the signal will never pointlessly cause vehicle traffic to stop. Pedestrian crossings without traffic signals are also common. In this case, the traffic law usually states that the pedestrian has the right of way when crossing, and that vehicles must stop when a pedestrian uses the crossing. Countries and driving cultures vary greatly as to the extent to which this is respected.

Speed

One of the main factors that affect the damage caused by a collision is speed. Therefore, most civilized parts of the world impose speed limits on their roads. Drivers are not supposed to drive at speeds which are higher than the posted limit. To enforce the speed limit, two approaches are generally employed. In the USA it is common for the police to patrol the streets and use special equipment to measure the speed of vehicles, and "pull over" any vehicle found to be in violation of the speed limit. In Brazil and some European countries, there are computerized speed-measuring devices spread throughout the city, which will automatically detect speeding drivers and take a photograph of the license plate, which is later used for applying and mailing the ticket.

Expressways

Brazil, near rush hour, already showing some considerable traffic density.]] In large cities, moving from one part of the city to another by means of ordinary streets and avenues can be time-consuming since traffic usually moves at slow speeds and there are many intersections, stop signs, parked cars, pedestrian crossings, bicycle traffic and other obstacles. Therefore, it has become common practice for larger cities to build expressways, which are large and wide avenues that run for long distances and have no intersections or semaphores. Vehicles wishing to travel over great distances within the city will usually take the expressways in order to save on travel time. When another road must cross an expressway, a bridge will be built if the expressway is a ground-level road, or it will pass under the expressway if it is elevated. Expressways usually have controlled entry and exit, that is, entering and leaving the expressway may only be done at specific points called entries and exits. Vehicles entering the expressway must yield the right of way to the vehicles already traveling on it.

Unorganized traffic

Unorganized traffic occurs in the absence of lanes and signals. Roads do not have lanes, though drivers tend to keep to the appropriate side if the road is wide enough. Drivers frequently overtake other drivers, and obstructions are not uncommon. Intersections have no signals or signage, and a particular road at a busy intersection may be dominant (that is, its traffic flows) until a break in traffic, at which time the dominance shifts to the other road where vehicles are queued. At the intersection of two perpendicular roads, a traffic jam results if four vehicles face each other side-on.

Which side?

According to Brian Lucas, about 34% of the world by country population drives on the left, and 66% keeps right. By roadway miles, about 72% drive on the right.

External links

- [http://www.amasci.com/amateur/traffic/traffic1.html Traffic Waves]
- [http://www.best.bc.ca/ Better Environmentally Sound Transportation]
- [http://www.greenercars.com/indexplus.html Welcome to GreenerCars.com: The online home of ACEEE's Green Book]
- [http://www.sankey.ws/calming.html Traffic calming in a community]
- [http://www.traffic.com Traffic.com] Category:Transportation zh-tw:交通

Jurisdiction

In law, jurisdiction from the Latin jus, juris meaning "law" and dicere meaning "to speak", is the practical authority granted to a formally constituted body or to a person to deal with and make pronouncements on legal matters and, by implication, to administer justice within a defined area of responsibility. As a topic, it draws its substance from Public International Law, Conflict of Laws, Constitutional Law and the powers of the executive and legislative branches of government to allocate resources to best serve the needs of each society.

Jurisdiction in the international dimension

Public international law provides a framework within which nations and states (in the political sense of the words) can come into being and relate to each other.

Jurisdiction as a political issue

A number of supranational organizations and bodies have been created which provide mechanisms whereby disputes between states may be avoided, discussed or resolved, e.g. through arbitration or mediation. When a country is recognised as de jure, this is an acknowledgement by the other de jure nations that the new country has sovereignty and the right to exist. This is a political system that moves slowly, gathering consensus wherever possible and the extent to which any state will co-operate or participate is always at the discretion of each sovereign state. By definition, if any state does agree to participate in any of the activities of the supranational bodies and to accept decisions that might be made in the ordinary course of their business, that state is giving up a little of its sovereign authority and thereby allocating a little power to these bodies. In so far as these bodies or nominated individuals may resolve disputes in a judicial or quasi-judicial fashion, or promote treaty obligations in the nature of laws, the power ceded to these bodies cumulatively represents each body's own jurisdiction. But no matter how powerful each body may appear to become, the extent to which any of the judgments may be enforced, or proposed treaties and conventions may become or remain effective within the territorial boundaries of each nation is a political matter under the sovereign control of the relevant representative government(s) which, in a democratic context, will have electorates to satisfy.

International versus municipal jurisdiction

The fact that international organizations, courts and tribunals have been created raises the difficult question of how to co-ordinate their activities with those of national courts. If the two sets of bodies do not have concurrent jurisdiction but, as in the case of the International Criminal Court (ICC), the relationship is expressly based on the principle of complementarity, i.e. the international court is subsidiary or complementary to national courts, the difficulty is avoided. But if the jurisdiction claimed is concurrent, or as in the case of International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), the international tribunal is to prevail over national courts, the problems are more difficult to resolve politically. The concept of universal jurisdiction is fundamental to the operation of global organizations such as the United Nations and the International Court of Justice (ICJ), which jointly assert the benefit of maintaining legal entities with jurisdiction over a wide range of matters of significance to states (the ICJ should not be confused with the ICC and this version of "universal jurisdiction" is not the same as that enacted in the War Crimes Law (Belgium) which is an assertion of extraterritorial jurisdiction that will fail to gain implementation in any other state under the standard provisions of public policy). Under Article 34 Statute of the ICJ http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/ibasicdocuments/Basetext/istatute.htm only states may be parties in cases before the Court and, under Article 36, the jurisdiction comprises all cases which the parties refer to it and all matters specially provided for in the Charter of the United Nations or in treaties and conventions in force. But, to invoke the jurisdiction in any given case, all the parties have to accept the prospective judgment as binding. This reduces the risk of wasting the Court's time. Despite the safeguards built into the constitutions of most of these organizations, courts and tribunals, the concept of universal jurisdiction is controversial among those states which prefer unilateral to multilateral solutions through the use of executive or military authority, sometimes described as realpolitik-based diplomacy. Within other international contexts, there are intergovernmental organizations such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) that have socially and economically significant dispute resolution functions but, again, even though their jurisdiction may be invoked to hear the cases, the power to enforce their decisions is at the will of the states affected, save that the WTO is permitted to allow retaliatory action by successful states against those states found to be in breach of international trade law. At a regional level, groups of states can create political and legal bodies with sometimes complicated patchworks of overlapping provisions detailing the jurisdictional relationships between the member states and providing for some degree of harmonization between their national legislative and judicial functions, e.g. the European Union and African Union both have the potential to become federated states although the political barriers to such unification in the face of entrenched nationalism will be very difficult to overcome. Each such group may form transnational institutions with declared legislative or judicial powers. For example, in Europe, the European Court of Justice has been given jurisdiction as the ultimate appellate court to the Member States on issues of European law. This jurisdiction is entrenched and its authority could only be denied by a Member State if that Member State asserts its sovereignty and withdraws from the Union.

The jurisdictional relationship between international and municipal laws

The standard treaties and conventions leave the issue of implementation to each state, i.e. there is no general rule in international law that treaties have direct effect in municipal law, but some states, by virtue of their membership of supranational bodies, allow the direct incorporation of rights or enact legislation to honor their international commitments. Hence, citizens in those states can invoke the jurisdiction of local courts to enforce rights granted under international law wherever there is incorporation. If there is no direct effect or legislation, there are two theories to justify the courts incorporating international into municipal law:
- Monism :This theory characterizes international and municipal law as a single legal system with municipal law subordinate to international law. Hence, in the Netherlands, all treaties and the orders of international organizations are effective without any action being required to convert international into municipal law. This has an interesting consequence because treaties that limit or extend the powers of the Dutch government are automatically considered a part of their constitutional law, e.g. the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. In states adopting this theory, the local courts automatically accept jurisdiction to adjudicate on lawsuits relying on international law principles.
- Dualism :This theory regards international and municipal law as separate systems so that the municipal courts can only apply international law either when it has been incorporated into municipal law or when the courts incorporate international law on their own motion. In the United Kingdom, for example, a treaty is not effective until it has been incorporated at which time it becomes enforceable in the courts by any private citizen, where appropriate, even against the UK Government. Otherwise the courts have a discretion to apply international law where it does not conflict with statute or the common law. The constitutional principle of parliamentary supremacy permits the legislature to enact any law inconsistent with any international treaty obligations even though the government is a signatory to those treaties. :In the United States, the Supremacy Clause of the United States Constitution makes all treaties that have been ratified under the authority of the United States and customary international law, …the "Supreme Law of the Land" (U.S. Const.art. VI Cl. 2) and, sas such, the law of the land is binding on the federal government as well as on state and local governments. According to the U.S. Supreme Court, the treaty power authorizes Congress to legislate under the Necessary and Proper Clause in areas beyond those specifically conferred on Congress (Missouri v. Holland 252 U.S. 416 (1920)).

The jurisdiction of courts between and within states

This now concerns states in the technical legal sense of the word and the relationships both between courts in different states, and between courts within the same state.

Supranational

At a supranational level, countries have adopted a range of treaty and convention obligations to relate the right of individual litigants to invoke the jurisdiction of state courts and to enforce the judgments obtained. For example, the Member States of the EEC signed the Brussels Convention in 1968 and, subject to amendments as new states joined, it represents the default law for all twenty-five Member States of what is now termed the European Union on the relationships between the courts in the different countries. In addition, the Lugano Convention (1988) binds the European Union and the European Free Trade Area. With effect from 1 March 2002, all the Member States of the EU except Denmark accepted Council Regulation (EC) 44/2001, which makes major changes to the Brussels Convention and is directly effective in the Member States. In some legal areas, at least, the reciprocal enforcement of foreign judgments is now more straightforward. At a state level, the traditional rules still determine jurisdiction over persons who are not domiciled or habitually resident in the European Union or the Lugano area. There is a real and growing problem of forum shopping and in the reluctance of some states to adopt more positive Conflict of Laws rules. Although the Hague Conference and other international bodies have made consistently useful recommendations on jurisdictional matters, litigants with the encouragement of lawyers now more commonly operating on a contingent fee continue to exploit the system to their advantage, always seeking remedies in courts where the outcome is more likely to be favorable.

Federal

Many nations are subdivided into states and provinces (i.e. a subnational "state") in a federation (as can be found in Australia, Brazil, India, Mexico and the United States) and these subunits will exercise jurisdiction through the court systems as defined by the executives and legislatures operating within the whole. Sometimes when the areas of separate governmental entities overlap one another—for example, between a state and the federation to which it belongs—their jurisdiction is shared or concurrent jurisdiction. Otherwise one governmental entity will have exclusive jurisdiction over the shared area. When jurisdiction is concurrent, one governmental entity may have supreme jurisdiction over the other entity if their laws conflict. If the executive or legislative powers within the jurisdiction are not restricted or restricted only by a number of limited restrictions, these government branches have plenary power such as a national policing power. Otherwise an enabling act grants only limited or enumerated powers. The problem of forum shopping also applies as between federal and state courts, and it is for each system to adjust jurisdictional matters to achieve the fairest possible results.

State level

Within each state, it is for the government to determine the allocation of jurisdiction: #There must be physical distribution of courts and tribunals throughout the territory which should be divided into convenient functional divisions to provide an effective service to the local communities. Hence, it may be convenient for there to be an extensive network of smaller local courts having a criminal law jurisdiction so that neighborhoods can have a disposition system administered by those familiar with their locality and its needs (see criminal jurisdiction). Whereas more specialized civil and commercial courts need only be located in larger towns and major cities where there is a demand for the particular specialisms consistent with the economic costs of providing the facilities and personnel to staff them. Each court system lays down detailed rules for determining who may invoke the jurisdiction in each of the various divisions. In addition to the possibility that the plaintiff has a local domicile, nationality or habitual residence, these conditions may vary from minimum residence requirements for those more transiently present, that business has been conducted within the territory or that there is some other real connection between the plaintiff and/or the cause of action and the state in which the lawsuit has been filed. #The government may decide that individuals within the executive should have the power to make judicial or quasi-judicial decisions, and the extent to which the exercise of this jurisdiction should be subject to review by the courts. This has constitutional implications in that many states operate on the basis of the separation of powers which requires that each branch of government operates as a check on the potential abuse of power by the others. Within the formalized judicial structure, jurisdiction may also be granted to individuals for the provision of specialized functions (e.g. the role of special referees or those individuals of prestige commissioned to conduct inquiries into specific situations with the power to compel testimony). In parallel to the courts system, other tribunals and quasi-judicial bodies may also have a form of jurisdiction, e.g. for arbitration, mediation, etc within a broad framework of alternative dispute resolution. Under normal circumstances, the supervisory function of the courts will be built into the constitutive process for each tribunal or body, or the courts will allow their jurisdiction to be invoked, e.g. by way of remedies such as certiorari, to ensure that justice is seen to be done. However, some well-established bodies such as the Beth Din represent more interesting challenges. Such religious or culturally-based courts often have significant power within the relevant communities yet, in an increasingly multi-ethnic, multi-cultural world, the secular or culturally-different majority in each state cannot be seen to be too quick to interfere and impose its standards without appearing to engage in unequal treatment and discrimination (see the secular response to the get as an example).

Jurisdiction in the United States

The primary distinctions between areas of jurisdiction are codified at a national level. As a common law system, jurisdiction is conceptually divided between jurisdiction over the subject matter of a case and jurisdiction over the person of the litigants. (See personal jurisdiction.) Sometimes a court may exercise jurisdiction over property located within the perimeter of its powers without regard to personal jurisdiction over the litigants; this is called jurisdiction in rem. A court whose subject-matter jurisdiction is limited to certain types of controversies (for example, suits in admiralty or suits where the monetary amount sought is less than a specified sum) is sometimes referred to as a court of special jurisdiction or court of limited jurisdiction. A court whose subject-matter is not limited to certain types of controversy is referred to as a court of general jurisdiction. In the U.S. States, each state has courts of general jurisdiction; most states also have some courts of limited jurisdiction. Federal courts (those operated by the federal government are courts of limited jurisdiction. Federal jurisdiction is divided into federal question jurisdiction and diversity jurisdiction. The United States District Courts may hear only cases arising under federal law and treaties, cases involving ambassadors, admiralty cases, controversies between states or between a state and citizens of another state, lawsuits involving citizens of different states, and against foreign states and citizens. Certain courts, particularly the United States Supreme Court and most state supreme courts, have discretionary jurisdiction, meaning that they can choose which cases to hear from among all the cases presented on appeal. Such courts generally only choose to hear cases that would settle important and controversial points of law. Though these courts have discretion to deny cases they otherwise could adjudicate, no court has the discretion to hear a case that falls outside of its subject-matter jurisdiction.

External links

- [http://www.law.cornell.edu/topics/jurisdiction.html LII Law about... Jurisdiction]
- [http://www.cdi.org/news/law/gtmo-sct-decision.cfm Supreme Court Decision] on Guantanamo Bay jurisdiction Category:International law Category:Law

Wildflower

A wildflower (or wild flower) is a flower that grows wild, meaning it was not intentionally seeded or planted. Yet "wildflower" meadows of a few mixed species are sold in seed packets. The term "wildflower" has been made vague by commercial seedsmen who are interested in selling more flowers or seeds more expensively than when labeled with only its name and/or origin. The term implies that the plant probably is neither a hybrid nor a selected cultivar that is in any way different from the way it appears in the wild as a native plant, even if it is growing where it would not naturally. Scientists do not refer to wildflowers and generally try to discourage people from using the term altogether. Terms like native species (naturally occurring in the area, see Flora (plants)), exotic or, better, introduced species (not naturally occurring in the area), of which some are labelled invasive species (that out-compete other plants – whether native or not), imported (introduced to an area whether deliberately or accidentally) and naturalized (introduced to an area, but now considered by the public as native) are much more accurate.

Germinate

In a botanical sense, germination is the process of emergence of growth from a resting stage. We typically think of the sprouting of a seedling from a seed of a flowering plant or gymnosperm. However, the growth of a hypha from a fungal spore is also germination. In a more general sense, germination can imply anything expanding into greater being from a small existence or germ.

Seed germination

The seed of a higher plant is a small package produced in a flower or cone containing an embryo and stored food reserves. Under favorable conditions, the seed begins to germinate, and the embryonic tissues resume growth, developing towards a seedling. The part of the plant that emerges from the seed first is termed a radicle. In some definitions, the appearance of the radicle marks the end of germination and the beginning of establishment, a period that ends when the seedling has exhausted the food reserves stored in the seed. These are critical phases in the life of a plant. The mortality between dispersal of seeds and completion of establishment can be so high, that many species survive only by producing huge numbers of seeds. Some seeds require particular conditions to germinate, such as the heat of a fire (e.g., many Australian native plants), or soaking in a body of water for a long period of time.

Stratification of seeds

Seeds must be mature and environmental factors must be favorable before germination can take place. When a mature seed is placed under favorable conditions and fails to germinate, it is said to be dormant. The length of time plant seeds remain dormant can be reduced or eliminated by a simple seed treatment called stratification. Seeds should be planted promptly after stratification. If the seed is allowed to dry out, dormancy may be triggered again and your efforts will be wasted.

External links

- [http://theseedsite.co.uk/ The Seed Site]: collecting, storing, sowing, germinating, and exchanging seeds, with pictures of seeds, seedpods and seedlings.
- [http://theseedsite.co.uk/seedsowing.html Sowing Seeds] A survey of seed sowing techniques.
- Seed Germination: Theory and Practice, Norman C. Deno, 139 Lenor Dr., State College PA 16801, USA. An extensive study of the germination rates of a huge variety of seeds under different experimental conditions, including temperature variation and chemical environment.
- [http://www.evergreengardenworks.com/seed.htm How to Germinate Seed] A bonsai propagator's views. Category:Botany Category:Developmental biology

Year

A year is the time between two recurrences of an event related to the orbit of the Earth around the Sun. By extension, this can be applied to any planet: for example, a "Martian year" is a year on Mars.

Seasonal year

A seasonal year is the time between successive recurrences of a seasonal event such as the flooding of a river, the migration of a species of bird, the flowering of a species of plant, the first frost, or the first scheduled game of a certain sport. All of these events can have wide variations of more than a month from year to year.

Calendar year

A calendar year is the time between two dates with the same name in a calendar. Solar calendars usually aim to predict the seasons, but because the length of individual seasonal years varies significantly, they instead use an astronomical year as a surrogate. For example, the ancient Egyptians used the heliacal rising of Sirius to predict the flooding of the Nile. The Gregorian calendar aims to keep the vernal equinox on or close to March 21; hence it follows the vernal equinox year. The average length of its year is 365.2425 days. No astronomical year has an integer number of days or months, so any calendar that follows an astronomical year must have a system of intercalation such as leap years. In the formerly used Julian calendar, the average length of a year was 365.25 days. This is still used as a convenient time unit in astronomy, see below.

Astronomical years

Julian year

The Julian year, as used in astronomy and other sciences, is a time unit defined as exactly 365.25 days. This is the normal meaning of the unit "year" (symbol "a" from the Latin annus, annata) used in various scientific contexts. The Julian century of 36525 days and the Julian millennium of 365250 days are used in astronomical calculations. Fundamentally, expressing a time interval in Julian years is a way to precisely specify how many days (not how many "real" years), for long time intervals where stating the number of days would be unwieldy and unintuitive.

Sidereal year

The sidereal year is the time for the Earth to complete one revolution of its orbit, as measured in a fixed frame of reference (such as the fixed stars, Latin sidus). Its duration in SI days of 86,400 SI seconds each is on average: :365.256 363 051 days (365 d 6 h 9 min 9 s) (at the epoch J2000.0 = 2000 January 1 12:00:00 TT).

Tropical year

A tropical year is the time for the Earth to complete one revolution with respect to the framework provided by the intersection of the ecliptic (the plane of the orbit of the Earth) and the plane of the equator (the plane perpendicular to the rotation axis of the Earth). Because of the precession of the equinoxes, this framework moves slowly westward along the ecliptic with respect to the fixed stars (with a period of about 26,000 tropical years); as a consequence, the Earth completes this year before it completes a full orbit as measured in a fixed reference frame. Therefore a tropical year is shorter than the sidereal year. The exact length of a tropical year depends on the chosen starting point: for example the vernal equinox year is the time between successive vernal equinoxes. The mean tropical year (averaged over all ecliptic points) is: :365.242 189 67 days (365 d 5 h 48 min 45 s) (at the epoch J2000.0).

Anomalistic year

The anomalistic year is the time for the Earth to complete one revolution with respect to its apsides. The orbit of the Earth is elliptical; the extreme points, called apsides, are the perihelion, where the Earth is closest to the Sun (January 2 in 2000), and the aphelion, where the Earth is farthest from the Sun (July 2 in 2000). Because of gravitational disturbances by the other planets, the shape and orientation of the orbit are not fixed, and the apsides slowly move with respect to a fixed frame of reference. Therefore the anomalistic year is slightly longer than the sidereal year. It takes about 112,000 years for the ellipse to revolve once relative to the fixed stars. The anomalistic year is also longer than the tropical year (which calendars attempt to track) and so the date of the perihelion gradually advances every year. It takes about 21,000 years for the ellipse to revolve once relative to the vernal equinox, thus for the date of perihelion to return to the same place (given a calendar that tracks the seasons perfectly). The average duration of the anomalistic year is: :365.259 635 864 days (365 d 6 h 13 min 52 s) (at the epoch J2000.0).

Draconic year

The draconitic year, eclipse year or ecliptic year is the time for the Sun (as seen from the Earth) to complete one revolution with respect to the same lunar node (a point where the Moon's orbit intersects the ecliptic). This period is associated with eclipses: these occur only when both the Sun and the Moon are near these nodes; so eclipses occur within about a month of every half eclipse year. Hence there are two eclipse seasons every eclipse year. The average duration of the eclipse year is: :346.620 075 883 days (346 d 14 h 52 min 54 s) (at the epoch J2000.0). :This term is sometimes also used to designate the time it takes for a complete revolution of the Moon's ascending node around the ecliptic: 18.612 815 932 years (6798.331 019 days).

Fumocy

The full moon cycle or fumocy is the time for the Sun (as seen from the Earth) to complete one revolution with respect to the perigee of the Moon's orbit. This period is associated with the apparent size of the full moon, and also with the varying duration of the anomalistic month. The duration of one full moon cycle is: :411.784 430 29 days (411 d 18 h 49 min 34 s) (at the epoch J2000.0).

Heliacal year

A heliacal year is the interval between the heliacal risings of a star. It equals the sidereal year only if the star is on the ecliptic. It differs from the sidereal year for stars north or south of the ecliptic because

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Wildflower

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Germinate

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