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Catholicism

Catholicism

:This article considers Catholicism in the broadest ecclesiastical sense. See Catholicism (disambiguation) for alternative meanings Catholicism has two main ecclesiastical meanings, described in Webster's Dictionary as: a) "the whole orthodox Christian church, or adherence thereto"; and b) "the doctrines or faith of the Roman Catholic church, or adherence thereto." ¹ The term comes from the Greek adjective καθολικός -ή -όν (katholikos), meaning "general" or "universal". In Greek, the word for "church" is feminine and takes the feminine form of the adjective, viz.: .

"One Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic"

A letter that, in about AD 107, Saint Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch wrote to Christians in Smyrna, is the earliest surviving witness to the use of the term "catholic Church" (Smyrnaeans, 8). By it Saint Ignatius designated the Christian Church in its universal aspect, excluding heretics, such as those who disavow "the Eucharist to be the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ, which suffered for our sins, and which the Father, of His goodness, raised up again" (Smyrnaeans, 7). He called such people "beasts in the shape of men, whom you must not only not receive, but, if it be possible, not even meet with" (Smyrnaeans, 4). Yet more explicit was the manner in which Saint Cyril of Jerusalem (circa 315-386) used the term "catholic Church" precisely to distinguish this Church from heretical "Churches". He urged: "If ever thou art sojourning in cities, inquire not simply where the Lord's House is (for the other sects of the profane also attempt to call their own dens houses of the Lord), nor merely where the Church is, but where is the Catholic Church. For this is the peculiar name of this Holy Church, the mother of us all, which is the spouse of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Only-begotten Son of God" (Catechetical Lectures, XVIII, 26).[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/310118.htm] The word Catholic has been used ever since to describe the genuine one original Church founded by Christ and the Apostles. The word appears in the main Christian creeds (formal definitions of belief), notably the Apostles' Creed and the Nicene Creed. As such, many Christians (and denominations) see themselves as "catholic". They fall into two groups: ::1) those like the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox Churches, and Anglican churches having Apostolic Succession from the early church; and ::2) those who claim to be spiritual descendants of the Apostles but have no discernable institutional descent from the historic church, and normally do not refer to themselves as catholic. Christians of most denominations, including most Protestants, affirm their faith in "One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church". For Protestants, most of whom consider themselves to be spiritual descendants (category 2, above), this affirmation refers to their belief in the ultimate unity of all churches under one God and one Saviour, rather than in one visibly unified institutional church (category 1, above). In this usage catholic is sometimes written with a lower-case "c". The Western Apostles' Creed, stating "I believe in...the holy catholic church..." (sometimes capitalised), is thus recited in Protestant worship services (with the notable exception of German Lutherans). The Nicene Creed likewise declares belief in "one holy catholic and apostolic Church".

Brief organizational history of the Church

The early Catholic Church came to be organized under the three patriarchs of Rome, Alexandria and Antioch, to which later were added the patriarch of Constantinople and of Jerusalem. The Bishop of Rome was at that time recognized as first among them - as is stated, for instance, in canon 3 of the First Council of Constantinople (381) - and doctrinal or procedural disputes were oftentimes referred to Rome - as when, on appeal by St Athanasius against the decision of the Council of Tyre (335), Pope Julius, who spoke of such appeals as customary, annulled the action of that council and restored Athanasius and Marcellus of Ancyra to their sees. When the Imperial capital moved to Constantinople, Rome's influence was sometimes challenged. Nonetheless, Rome claimed special authority because of its connection to Saint Peter ² and Saint Paul, who, all agreed, were martyred and buried in Rome. Consequently, Rome considered the bishop of Rome as the direct successor of Saint Peter, the prince of the apostles. The AD 431 Council of Ephesus, the Third Ecumenical Council, was chiefly concerned with Nestorianism. Nestorianism emphasized the distinction between the humanity and divinity of Jesus and taught that the Virgin Mary gave birth not to God but only to the man, Jesus Christ. This Council rejected Nestorianism and affirmed that humanity and divinity were inseparable in the one person Jesus Christ, and that his mother, the Virgin Mary, is thus Theotokos, God-bearer, Mother of God. The first great rupture in the Church followed this Council. Those who refused to accept the Council's ruling were largely Persian and are represented today by the Assyrian Church of the East and related Churches. The next major break was after the Council of Chalcedon (AD 451). This Council repudiated Eutychian Monophysitism which states that the divine nature completely subsumed the human nature in Christ. This Council declared that Christ, though one person, exhibited two natures "without confusion, without change, without division, without separation" and thus is both fully God and fully human. The Alexandrian Church rejected the terms adopted by this Council. These Christians are now often referred to as Ancient Oriental Churches or the Oriental Orthodox Communion. The next major rift within Christianity was in the 11th century. Doctrinal disputes, as well as conflicts between methods of Church government, and the evolution of separate rites and practices, precipitated a split in AD 1054 that divided the Church, this time between a "West" and an "East". England, France, the Holy Roman Empire, Scandinavia, and much of the rest of Western Europe were in the Western camp, and Greece, Russia and many of other Slavic lands, Anatolia, and the Christians in Syria and Egypt who accepted the Council of Chalcedon made up the Eastern camp. This division is called the Great Schism. The most recent major division in the Church occurred in the 16th century with the Protestant Reformation, after which many parts of the Western Church rejected the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church and became known as "Protestant". All of the preceding groups, excluding some Protestants, consider themselves to be fully and completely Catholic. All of them claim to be either part of the Catholic Church or the only Catholic Church.

The Roman Catholic Church

"The Catholic Church", when used not of an abstract invisible entity, but of a visible concrete body of Christians, usually refers to what is also called "the Roman Catholic Church". This Church hardly ever uses the name "Roman Catholic Church" for itself, except in its relations with other Christian groups. Even in those relations, "Catholic Church" may also appear, as in some documents drawn up in common with the Lutheran World Federation and the Assyrian Church of the East. On the other hand, the Church has in fact applied the adjective "Roman" to itself in its entirety even in some internal documents, such as the Dogmatic Constitution de fide catholica of the First Vatican Council, which was attended by Eastern as well as Western bishops. When it does apply the adjective "Roman" to itself, it understands this word only as pointing to the centrality for it of the see of Rome, with which all its members, laity and clergy alike, are necessarily in full communion. Outsiders, in contrast, considering the use of the name "Catholic Church" by this Church to be contentious, use the term "Roman Catholic Church" to imply that it is only the "Roman" section of some larger, perhaps abstract, entity that they call the Catholic Church and that, in their view, also includes other sections not in communion with Rome, a usage that members of the Church in question in turn see as contentious. Frequently enough, some members of this Church, especially those of Eastern Rite, apply the term "Roman Catholic Church" not, as in the Church's official documents, to the Church as a whole, but only to its Latin Rite component. Unlike the outsiders just mentioned, they consider communion with the see of Rome essential for all members of the Catholic Church.

Other Catholic groups

In Western Christianity the principal groups that regard themselves as "Catholic" without full communion with the Pope are the Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association and some elements of Anglicanism ("High Church Anglicans" or "Anglo-Catholics"). Smaller groups include the Old Catholics, the Aglipayans (Philippine Independent Church), and the Polish National Church of America. Their spiritual beliefs and practices are similar to those of Catholics of the Latin Rite, from which they emerged, but they reject the Pope's claimed status and authority. The Anglican Communion is in practice divided into two wings, "High Church Anglicans" also called the Anglo-Catholics and "Low Church Anglicans" also known as the Evangelical wing. Though all elements within the Anglican Communion recite the same creeds, Low Church Anglicans regard the word Catholic in the ideal sense given above, while High Church Anglicans treat it as a name of Christ's church which they consider to embrace themselves together with the Roman Catholic and several Orthodox Churches. Anglo-Catholicism maintains similarities to the Latin Rite of Roman Catholicism and related spirituality, including a belief in seven sacraments, Transubstantiation as opposed to Consubstantiation, devotion to the Virgin Mary and saints, the description of their ordained clergy as "priests" — addressed as "Father" — the wearing of vestments in church liturgy, sometimes even the description of their Eucharistic celebrations as "Mass". The development of the Anglo-Catholic wing of Anglicanism occurred largely in the nineteenth century and is strongly associated with the Oxford Movement. Two of its leading lights, John Henry Newman and Henry Edward Manning, both ordained Anglican clergymen, ended up joining the Roman Catholic Church, becoming cardinals. The several churches of Eastern Orthodoxy and Oriental Orthodoxy each consider themselves to be the universal and true Catholic Church, and typically regard the other of these families and the Western Catholics as heretical and as having left the One Holy Catholic, and Apostolic Church. The patriarchs of these Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches are autocephalous hierarchs, which roughly means that each of them is independent of the direct oversight of another bishop (although still subject, according to their distinct traditions, either to the synod of bishops of each one’s jurisdiction, or only to a common decision of the patriarchs of their own communion). They are willing to concede a primacy of honor to the Petrine See, but not of authority.

Distinctive beliefs and practices

Beliefs

Catholic Churches share certain essential distinctive beliefs and practices, but Anglicans differ among themselves in their regard:
- Direct and continuous organizational descent from the original church founded by Jesus (see e.g. Mt [http://drbo.org/cgi-bin/d?b=drb&bk=47&ch=016&l=18 16:18]).
- Possession of the "threefold ordained ministry" of Bishops, Priests and Deacons.
- All ministers are ordained by, and subject to, Bishops, who pass down sacramental authority by the "laying-on of hands", having themselves been ordained in a direct line of succession from the Apostles (see Apostolic Succession).
- Their belief that the Church is the vessel and deposit of the fullness of the teachings of Jesus and the Apostles from which the Scriptures were formed. This teaching is preserved in both written Scripture and in unwritten Tradition. Neither is independent of the other.
- A belief in the necessity of sacraments (generally counted as seven).
- The use of images, candles, vestments and music in worship.
- The making of the Sign of the Cross in a variety of contexts.
- Belief that the Eucharist is really, truly, and substantially the Body and Blood of Christ, which occurs through transubstantiation. Those that are quite distinctively Catholic believe that adoration and worship is due to the Eucharist as the body and blood of Christ.
- Veneration of Mary, the mother of Jesus as the Blessed Virgin Mary or Theotokos, and veneration of the saints.
- A distinction among worship (latria) for God, and veneration (dulia) for saints, with the term hyperdulia used for a special veneration accorded to the Virgin Mary among the saints. Some do not accept the distinction between hyperdulia and dulia.
- The use of prayer for the dead.

Sacraments

Catholics administer seven sacraments or "divine mysteries":
- Baptism,
- Confirmation, also called Chrismation,
- Eucharist,
- Penance and Reconciliation,
- Anointing of the Sick,
- Holy Orders, and
- Holy Matrimony. Baptism is the first and basic sacrament of Christian initiation. Catholics consider baptism conferred in most Christian denominations "in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit" (cf. Matthew 28:19) to be valid, since the effect is produced through the sacrament, independently of the faith of the minister, though not of the minister's intention. Baptism, as stated in the Nicene Creed is "for the remission of sins", not only personal sins, but also original sin, which it remits even in infants who have committed no personal sins. Expressed positively, remission of sins means bestowal of the sanctifying grace by which the baptized person shares the life of God. Confirmation or Chrismation is the second sacrament of Christian initiation. It is conferred by the laying on of hands and anointing, together with a special consecratory prayer. Through it, the gift of the Holy Spirit conferred in baptism is "strengthened and deepened" (see Catechism of the Catholic Church [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p2s2c1a2.htm §1303]). Its "originating" minister is a validly consecrated bishop; if a priest (a "presbyter") confers the sacrament - as is done ordinarily in Eastern Churches and in particular cases in Western - the link with the higher order is indicated by the use of chrism (also called myrrh) blessed by a bishop (in an Eastern Orthodox Church, by the patriarch). In the East the sacrament is administered immediately after baptism. In the West administration came to be postponed until the recipient's early adulthood; but in view of the earlier age at which children are now admitted to reception of the Eucharist, it is more and more restored to the traditional order and administered before giving the third sacrament of Christian initiation. The Eucharist is the sacrament (the third of Christian initiation) by which Catholics partake of the Body and Blood of Jesus Christ and participate in his one sacrifice. The bread and wine used in the rite are, in Catholic faith, considered to be transformed in all but appearance into the Body and Blood of Christ, a change that is commonly called transubstantiation. Penance and Reconciliation are names given to the first of two sacraments of healing, which is also called the sacrament of conversion, of confession, and of forgiveness (Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1423-1424).[http://www.usccb.org/catechism/text/pt2sect2chpt2.htm#i] It is the sacrament of spiritual healing of a baptized person from the distancing from God involved in sins committed. It involves four elements: the penitent's contrition for sin (without which the rite does not have its effect), confession to a priest (it may be spiritually helpful to confess to another, but only a priest has the power to administer the sacrament), absolution by the priest, and satisfaction. In early Christian centuries, the fourth element was quite onerous and generally preceded absolution, but now it usually involves a simple task (in some traditions called a "penance") for the penitent to perform, to make some reparation and as a medicinal means of strengthening against further temptation. Anointing of the Sick is the second sacrament of healing. In it those who are suffering a serious physical illness are anointed by a priest with oil blessed specifically for that purpose. "Seriously sick" does not necessarily mean "in immediate danger of death". In past centuries, when such a restrictive interpretation was customary, the sacrament came to be known as "Extreme Unction", i.e. "Final Anointing". It was then conferred only as one of the "Last Rites". The other "Last Rites" are Confession (if the dying person is physically unable to confess, at least absolution, conditional on the existence of contrition, is given), and the Eucharist, which when administered to the dying is known as "Viaticum", a word whose original meaning in Latin was "provision for a journey". Holy Orders is the sacrament by which one becomes a bishop, a priest or a deacon. Only a bishop may administer this sacrament. Ordination as a bishop confers the fulness of the sacrament, making the bishop a member of the body that has succeeded to that of the Apostles, and giving him the mission to teach, sanctify and guide, along with the care of all the Churches. Ordination as a priest configures the priest to Christ the Head of the Church and the one essential Priest, empowering him, as the bishops' assistant, to celebrate divine worship, especially the Eucharist. Ordination as a deacon configures the deacon to Christ the Servant of All, placing him at the service of the Church, especially in the fields of the ministry of the word, divine worship, pastoral guidance and charity. Holy Matrimony, like Holy Orders, is a sacrament that consecrates for a particular mission in building up the Church, providing grace for accomplishing that mission.

The study of Catholicism

Catholicism is a religion, and is studied in contexts that include theology and philosophy.

Footnotes

- ¹ Webster's College Dictionary, 1991.
- ² St Peter is sometimes called “the first pope”. However, if “pope” is defined as “successor of St Peter”, St. Linus is the first pope. The Catholic Church teaches that the college of the bishops has succeeded, in the Church, to the group of the apostles, not that the bishops are apostles; and that, among the bishops, primacy belongs to the Bishop of Rome, as primacy among the apostles belonged to St Peter, not that the pope is on the same level as the Apostle Peter ([http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/ccc_toc.htm ‘’Catechism of the Catholic Church,’‘] 880-881).

Sources

- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07644a.htm "St. Ignatius of Antioch", Catholic Encyclopedia (1910).]
- [http://www.vatican.va/ The Holy See — The Vatican's Official Website]
- [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/ccc_toc.htm Catechism of the Catholic Church]
- [http://www.catholic.com Catholic Answers (catholic.com)] — Catholic Apologetics
- [http://cuf.org Catholics United for the Faith] — An orthodox/conservative Catholic advocacy organization
- [http://www.aboutcatholics.com/ About Catholics] — Information about specific beliefs
- [http://www.ewtn.com/ Eternal Word Television Network] — A Catholic Broadcast Organization
- [http://www.usccb.org/statements.shtml US Conference of Catholic Bishops - Joint statements]

Additional reading

- Catechism of the Catholic Church — English translation (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2000). ISBN 1574551108 [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/ccc_toc.htm]
- H. W. Crocker III, Triumph — The Power and the Glory of the Catholic Church: A 2,000-Year History (Prima Publishing, 2001). ISBN 0761529241
- Eamon Duffy, Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes (Yale Nota Bene, 2002). ISBN 0300091656
- K. O. Johnson, Why Do Catholics Do That? (Ballantine, 1994). ISBN 0345397266

External links

- [http://www.vatican.va/ The Holy See — The Vatican's Official Website]
- [http://www.christusrex.org/www1/CDHN/ccc.html Catechism of the Catholic Church]
- [http://www.fisheaters.com Fish Eaters: The Whys and Hows of Traditional Catholicism]
- [http://www.catholicity.com CatholiCity] - Catholic CDs and books
- [http://www.ziplink.net/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/kerygma/a.pl Topical search engine for the Catechism of the Catholic Church]
- [http://catholicism.about.com About.com Christianity - Catholicism at About.com]
- [http://www.newadvent.org New Advent] — A library of public domain Catholic writings
- [http://www.catholic.com Catholic Answers (catholic.com)] — Catholic Apologetics
- [http://cuf.org Catholics United for the Faith] — An orthodox/conservative Catholic advocacy organization
- [http://www.catholic.tc Roman Catholic Mission- T.C.I] Catholic Church in the Turks & Caicos Islands.
- [http://www.catholicculture.org CatholicCulture.org] — Various resources
- [http://ic.net/~erasmus/RAZINDEX.HTM Biblical Catholic Apologetics]
- [http://www.catholic.org/ Catholic Online] — A Catholic web portal
- [http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/ The Hierarchy of the Catholic Church] — Information about bishops and dioceses
- [http://www.aboutcatholics.com/ About Catholics] — Information about specific beliefs
- [http://www.americancatholic.org/UpdateYourFaith/default.asp American Catholic | Update Your Faith | FAQs About Catholicism]
- [http://www.cin.org/users/james/ebooks/master/master2.htm Nazareth Master Catechism: Aquinas, Trent, Baltimore, Pius X, CCC]
- [http://www.ewtn.com/ Eternal Word Television Network] — A Catholic Broadcast Organization
- [http://www.mycatholic.com myCatholic.com] — A customizable Catholic web portal. Category:Roman Catholic Church ja:カトリック教会 simple:Catholicism

Catholicism (disambiguation)

Catholicism is a term used especially in the context of Christianity. It comes from the Greek word καθολικος, meaning "general" or "universal." It can mean one of several things:
- Due to the dominant history and current influence of the Roman Catholic Church, "Catholicism" is often used to mean the belief system of that Church.
- In informal usage the term may be further restricted to mean the members, traditions, or theology of the Latin rite of the Roman Catholic Church.
- In other usage it may refer to all Churches that are Catholic in nature, which declare they uphold the Catholic faith, and claim apostolic succession through the Catholic side of the Great Schism. For examples see the Old Catholic Church, or the official Church of England site [http://www.cofe.anglican.org/faith/anglican/index.html What it means to be an Anglican] especially on "upholding the Catholic faith".
- It was first used to distinguish the early Christian Church from heretical groups, seen as associated with particular regions only.

Webster's Dictionary

for Webster's Dictionary]] Webster's Dictionary is a common title given to English language dictionaries in the United States, deriving its name from American lexicographer Noah Webster. In America, the phrase Webster's has become a genericized trademark for dictionaries. Although Merriam-Webster dictionaries are descended from those of the original purchasers of Noah Webster's work, many other dictionaries bear his name, such as those by the publishers Random House and John Wiley & Sons.

19th- and early 20th-century editions

John Wiley & Sons Noah Webster, the author of extremely popular readers and spelling books for schools, published his first dictionary, A Compendious Dictionary of the English Language, in 1806. In it, he introduced features that would be a hallmark of future editions such as American spellings (center rather than centre, honor rather than honour, program rather than programme, etc.) and including technical terms from the arts and sciences rather than confining his dictionary to literary words. He spent the next two decades working to expand his dictionary. In 1828, at the age of 70, Webster published his American Dictionary of the English Language in two quarto volumes containing 70,000 entries. Webster's assistant, and later chief competitor, Joseph Emerson Worcester, published an abridgment in 1829. Webster edited a Revised Edition, with the help of his son, William G. Webster, published 1840–1841, the primary change being the addition of several thousand new words. Upon Webster's death in 1843, the unsold books and all rights to the copyright and name "Webster" were purchased by brothers George and Charles Merriam, who then hired Webster's son-in-law Chauncey A. Goodrich, a professor at Yale College, to oversee revisions. Goodrich's New and Revised Edition appeared on September 24, 1847, and a Revised and Extended Edition in 1859, which added a section of illustrations indexed to the text. His revisions remained close to Webster's work, although removing what later editors referred to as his "excresenceces." In response to Joseph Worcester's groundbreaking dictionary of 1860, the G. & C. Merriam Company created a significantly revised edition, retaining the title American Dictionary of the English Language. It was edited by Yale editor Noah Porter and published in 1864 and contained 114,000 entries. It was sometimes referred to as the Webster-Mahn edition, because it featured revisions by Dr. C. A. F. Mahn, who replaced unsupportable etymologies which had been based on Webster's attempt to conform to Biblical interpretations of the history of language. It was the first edition to largely overhaul Noah Webster's work, and the first to be known as the Unabridged. Later printings added appendices, a Pronouncing Biographical Dictionary in 1879 and a Pronouncing Gazeteer in 1884. Porter also edited the next edition, Webster's International Dictionary, an expansion of the American, published in 1890 and containing 175,000 entries. The name was changed because the publisher wished to reflect the wide authority the work had throughout the English-speaking world and that it was no longer solely an "American" dictionary. The dictionary was published with a Supplement in 1900, which added 25,000 entries. The Merriam Company issued a complete revision in 1909, Webster's New International Dictionary, edited by William Torey Harris and F. Sturges Allen. Vastly expanded, it covered over 400,000 entries, and double the number of illustrations. A new format feature, the divided page, was designed to save space by including a section of words below the line at the bottom of each page, six columns of very fine print, devoted to such items as rarely used, obsolete, and foreign words, abbreviations, and variant spellings. Notable improvement was made in the treatment and number of discriminated synonyms, comparisons of subtle shades of meaning. Also added twenty-page chart comparing their pronunciations with those offered by six other major dictionaries. In 1934, the work was revised and expanded for its Second Edition, popularly known as Webster's Second, edited by William Allen Neilson and Thamas A. Knott. Early printings contain the famous lexicographic error dord. The book was five-inches (130 mm) thick and contained nearly 3,400 pages, including introductory sections. Some versions added another 400 page supplement called A Reference History of the World, dated chronologies "from earliest times to the present." The editors claim over 600,000 entries, the largest in any dictionary to date; however, this includes multitudes of proper names and newly added lists of undefined combination words. For its style and word coverage, it is still popular with many people.

Webster's Third New International

After about a decade of preparation, Merriam issued the entirely new Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged (familiarly known as Webster's Third,) in September 1961, edited by Philip Babcock Gove and containing over 450,000 entries, including over 50,000 new words and as many new senses for existing words. The final definition, zyzzogeton, was written on October 17, 1960, the final etymology was done on October 26, and the final pronunciation was done on November 9. Final copy went to the typesetters, R. R. Donnelley, on December 2. The book was printed by the Riverside Press in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The first edition had 2,726 large pages, weighed thirteen and one-half pounds (6.1 kg), and originally sold for $47.50. The changes were the most radical in the history of the Unabridged. Although it was an unprecedented masterwork of scholarship, it was met by many with disappointment and criticism.

Changes

While prior to Webster's Third, the Unabridged had been expanded with each new edition, with very minimal deletion, Gove now made sweeping deletions. He eliminated the "nonlexical matter," including the Pronouncing Gazetteer, Pronouncing Biographical Dictionary, Arbitrary Signs and Symbols, and other appendix sections, plus most other proper nouns from the main text (including mythological, Biblical, and fictional names, and the names of buildings, historical events, art works, etc.,) and over thirty picture plates. The rationale was that, while useful, these are not strictly about language. Gove justified the change by the company's publication of Webster's Biographical Dictionary in 1943 and Webster's Geographical Dictionary in 1949, and the fact that most of the subjects removed could be found in encyclopedias. However, the change bothered many users of the dictionary who were accustomed to the dictionary being a one-volume reference source. Also removed were words which had been virtually out of use, or obsolete, for over two hundred years (except those found in major literature such as Shakespeare), rare variants, reformed spellings, self-explanatory combination words, and other items considered of little value to the general reader. The number of small text illustrations was reduced, page size increased, and print size reduced by one-twelfth, from six point to agate (5.5 point) type. All this was considered necessary because of the large amount of new material, and Webster's Second had almost reached the limits of mechanical bookbinding. The fact that the new book had about 700 fewer pages was justified by the need to allow room for future additions. In style and method, the dictionary bore little resemblance to earlier editions. Headwords (except for "God" and, in the reprints, trademarks) were not capitalized. Instead of capitalizing "American," for example, the dictionary had labels next to the entries reading cap (for the noun) and usu cap (for the adjective). This allowed informative distinctions to be drawn: "gallic" is usu cap while "gallicism" is often cap and "gallicize" is sometimes cap.

Criticism

Webster's Third was heavily criticized for its "permissiveness" and its refusal to take a position on what was "good" English, critics comparing it unfavorably with the Second Edition. As Herbert Morton put it, "Webster's Second was more than respected. It was accepted as the ultimate authority on meaning and usage and its preeminence was virtually unchallenged in the United States. It did not provoke controversies, it settled them." Critics charged that the dictionary was reluctant to defend standard English, for example entirely eliminating the labels "colloquial," "correct," "incorrect," "proper," "improper," "erroneous," "humorous," "jocular," "poetic," and "contemptuous," among others. Gove's stance was an exemplar of descriptivist linguistics, aiming to represent the English language as it is actually spoken and written by most users rather than an elite making pronouncements. David M. Glixon in the Saturday Review described the new approach: "Having descended from God's throne of supreme authority, the Merriam folks are now seated around the city desk, recording like mad." Jacques Barzun said this stance made Webster's Third "the longest political pamphlet ever put together by a party," done with "a dogma that far transcends the limits of lexicography." The dictionary's treatment of "ain't" was subject to particular scorn, the word receiving no more severe comment from Webster's Third than "though disapproved by many and more common in less educated speech, used orally in most parts of the U.S. by many cultivated speakers esp. in the phrase ain't I." The Globe and Mail of Toronto editorialized "a dictionary's embrace of the word 'ain't' will comfort the ignorant, confer approval upon the mediocre, and subtly imply that proper English is the tool of only the snob." The New York Times editorialized that "Webster's has, it is apparent, surrendered to the permissive school that has been busily extending its beachhead in English instruction in the schools . . . reinforced the notion that good English is whatever is popular" and "can only accelerate the deterioration" of the English language. The Times' widely respected Theodore Bernstein, its in-house style maven and a professor of journalism at Columbia University, ordered that The Times' dictionary-of-record would continue to be the Webster's Second. (It today uses the Webster's New World Dictionary published by John Wiley.) Garry Wills in the National Review opined the new dictionary "has all the modern virtues. It is big, expensive, and ugly. It should be a great success." Criticism of the dictionary spurred the creation of the American Heritage Dictionary, where usage notes were determined by a panel of expert writers, commentators, and speakers.

Revisions and updates

Since the 1961 publication of the Third, Merriam-Webster has reprinted the main text of the dictionary with only minor corrections. To add new words, they created an Addenda Section in 1966, included in the front matter, which was expanded in 1971, 1976, 1981, 1986, 1993, and 2002. However, the rate of additions has been much slower than it had been throughout previous hundred years. Following the purchase of Merriam-Webster by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. in 1964, a three-volume version was issued for many years as a supplement to the encyclopedia. At the end of volume three, this edition included the Britannica World Language Dictionary, 474 pages of translations between English and French, German, Italian, Spanish, Swedish, and Yiddish. Although the time between new editions previously ranged between nineteen and twenty-seven years, after forty-four years Merriam-Webster has not revealed any plans to publish a new edition of their Unabridged.

The Collegiate Dictionary

Merriam-Webster introduced its Collegiate Dictionary in 1898 and the series is now in its 11th edition. Since the publication of Webster's International in 1890, two Collegiate editions have been issued as abridgements each of their Unabridged editions. By the 9th edition, the Collegiate had adopted changes which distinguish it as a separate entity rather than an abridgement of the Third New International. Some proper names had been returned to the word list, including names of Knights of the Round Table. The most notable change was the Merriam innovation of including the date of the first known citation of each word to document its entry into the English language.

The name "Webster" used by others

Since the late 19th century, dictionaries bearing the name "Webster's" have been published by companies other than Merriam-Webster. Some of these were pirated reprints of Noah Webster's work, some were revisions by others. One such revision was Webster's Imperial Dictionary, based on John Ogilvie's Imperial Dictionary, itself an expansion of Noah Webster's American Dictionary. As a result of lawsuits filed by Merriam, American courts ruled that "Webster's" entered the public domain when the Unabridged did, in 1889 (G. & C. Merriam Co. v. Ogilvie, 159 Fed. 638 (1908)) and another court ruled in 1917 that it entered the public domain in 1834 when Noah Webster's 1806 dictionary's copyright lapsed. Thus, Webster's became a genericized trademark and others were free to use the name on their own works. Since then, use of the name "Webster" has been rampant. Merriam-Webster goes to great pains to remind dictionary buyers that it alone is the heir to Noah Webster. The issue is more complicated than that, however. Throughout the 20th century, some non-Merriam editions, such as Webster's New Universal, were closer to Webster's work than modern Merriam-Webster editions. This is because Merriam's progressive revisions came to have little in common with their original source, while the Universal, for example, was minimally revised and remained largely out of date. It may be argued, though, that Merriam lived up to Noah Webster's legacy by being progressive, as he was in his time. (see also) So many dictionaries of varied size and quality have been called Webster's that the name no longer has any special meaning. But due to the fact that many people still trust the name, it continues to be a powerful marketing tool. In recent years, even established dictionaries with no direct link to Noah Webster have adopted the name, adding to the confusion. Random House dictionaries are now called Random House Webster's, and Microsoft's Encarta World English Dictionary is now Encarta Webster's Dictionary. As further proof that one can't judge a book by its title, the dictionary now called Webster's New Universal no longer uses the text referred to in the previous paragraph but is a commissioned version of the Random House Dictionary.

Competition

Noah Webster's main competitor was Joseph Worcester, whose 1830 Comprehensive Pronouncing and Explanatory Dictionary of the English Language brought accusations of plagiarism from Webster. The rivalry was carried on by Merriam after Webster's death, in what is often referred to as the Dictionary Wars. After Worcester's death in 1865, revision of his Dictionary of the English Language was soon discontinued and it eventually went out of print. The American edition of Charles Annandale's four volume revision of the Imperial Dictionary, published in 1883 by the Century Company, was more comprehensive than the Unabridged. The Century Dictionary, an expansion of the Imperial first published from 1889 to 1891, covered a larger vocabulary until the publication of Webster's Second in 1934, after the Century has ceased publication. In 1894 came Funk and Wagnalls Standard Dictionary an attractive one volume counterpart to Webster's International. The expanded New Standard of 1913 was a worthy challenge to the New International, and remained a major competitor for many years. However, Funk and Wagnalls never revised the work, reprinting it virtually unchanged for over 50 years, while Merriam published two major revisions. The Oxford English Dictionary, which published its complete first edition in 1933, challenged Merriam in scholarship, though not in the marketplace due to its size. The New International editions continued to offer words and features not covered by Oxford, and vice versa, and it was not until the 1980s, when Oxford published its Supplements and Second Edition, that the OED clearly overtook Merriam's leadership in the field. Between the 1930s and the 1950s, several college dictionaries, notably the American College Dictionary and (non-Merriam) Webster's New World Dictionary, entered the market alongside the Collegiate. Among larger dictionaries during this period was (non-Merriam) Webster's Universal Dictionary (also published as Webster's Twentieth Century Dictionary,) which traced its roots to Noah Webster and called itself "unabridged," but had less than half the vocabulary and paled in scholarship against the Merriam editions. After the disappointing reception of Webster's Third New International in the 1960s, the market was open for new challengers. Random House adapted its college dictionary by adding more illustrations and large numbers of proper names, increasing its print size and page thickness, and giving it a heavy cover. In 1966, it was published as a new "unabridged" dictionary. It was expanded in 1987, but still covered no more than half the actual vocabulary of Webster's Third. The American Heritage Publishing Co., highly critical of Webster's Third, failed in an attempt to buy out Merriam-Webster and determined to create its own dictionary. In 1969, they issued a college-sized dictionary, which has since been expanded and become one of the most popular English dictionaries. Now in its fourth edition, it is only slightly greater in vocabulary than the Collegiate, but appears much larger and has the appeal of many pictures and other features. Other medium-sized dictionaries have since entered the market, including the New Oxford American and the (non-Merriam) Encarta Webster's, while Merriam-Webster has not attempted to compete by issuing a similar edition. All of these offer college editions, but the Collegiate is the largest and most popular.

Online editions

The latest edition of Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary can be searched at the company's [http://www.merriam-webster.com website]. The updated Third New International is available online by subscription. The dictionary's 1913 update of the 1909 New International has in modern times been used in various free online resources, as its copyright lapsed and it became public domain. Some of these resources include:
- DICT
- Collaborative International Dictionary of English and GCIDE
- Everything2 There are also online resources based on the 1913 version that aren't completely free, such as:
- Webster's Online Dictionary - The Rosetta Edition [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/] (named after the Rosetta Stone) Both the Collegiate and the 1913 Unabridged are searched by the free dictionary search engine OneLook. The 1828 edition can be searched online [http://www.cbtministries.org/resources/webster1828.htm here] Another online resource is http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/

References

- Herbert C. Morton. The Story of Webster's Third: Philip Gove's Controversial Dictionary and Its Critics. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
- James Sledd and Wilma R. Ebbit, editors. Dictionaries and That Dictionary. Chicago: Scott Foresman, 1962.

Greek language

Greek (Greek Ελληνικά, IPA – "Hellenic") is an Indo-European language with a documented history of 3,500 years. Today, it is spoken by 15 million people in Greece, Cyprus, the former Yugoslavia, particularly The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Bulgaria, Albania and Turkey. There are also many Greek emigrant communities around the world, such as those in Melbourne, Australia which is the third-largest Greek-populated city in the world, after Athens and Thessaloniki. Greek has been written in the Greek alphabet, the first true alphabet, since the 9th century B.C. and before that, in Linear B and the Cypriot syllabaries. Greek literature has a long and rich tradition.

History

This article does not cover the reconstructed history of Greek prior to the use of writing. For more information, see main article on Proto-Greek language. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan Peninsula since the 2nd millennium BC. The earliest evidence of this is found in the Linear B tablets dating from 1500 BC. The later Greek alphabet (q.v.) is unrelated to Linear B, and was derived from the Phoenician alphabet (abjad); with minor modifications, it is still used today. Greek is conventionally divided into the following periods:
- Mycenean Greek: the language of the Mycenean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 16th century BC onwards.
- Classical Greek (also known as Ancient Greek): In its various dialects was the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman empire. Classical Greek fell into disuse in western Europe in the Middle Ages, but remained known in the Byzantine world, and was reintroduced to the rest of Europe with the Fall of Constantinople and Greek migration to Italy.
- Hellenistic Greek (also known as Koine Greek): The fusion of various ancient Greek dialects with Attic (the dialect of Athens) resulted in the creation of the first common Greek dialect, which gradually turned into one of the world's first international languages. Koine Greek can be initially traced within the armies and conquered territories of Alexander the Great, but after the Hellenistic colonisation of the known world, it was spoken from Egypt to the fringes of India. After the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial diglossy of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. Through Koine Greek it is also traced the origin of Christianity, as the Apostles used it to preach in Greece and the Greek-speaking world. It is also known as the Alexandrian dialect, Post-Classical Greek or even New Testament Greek (after its most famous work of literature).
- Medieval Greek: The continuation of Hellenistic Greek during medieval Greek history as the official and vernacular (if not the literary nor the ecclesiastic) language of the Byzantine Empire, and continued to be used until, and after the fall of that Empire in the 15th century. Also known as Byzantine Greek.
- Modern Greek: Stemming independently from Koine Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the late Byzantine period (as early as 11th century). Two main forms of the language have been in use since the end of the medieval Greek period: Dhimotikí (Δημοτική), the Demotic (vernacular) language, and Katharévousa (Καθαρεύουσα), an imitation of classical Greek, which was used for literary, juridic, and scientific purposes during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Demotic Greek is now the official language of the modern Greek state, and the most widely spoken by Greeks today. It has been claimed that an "educated" speaker of the modern language can understand an ancient text, but this is surely as much a function of education as of the similarity of the languages. Still, Koinē , the version of Greek used to write the New Testament and the Septuagint, is relatively easy to understand for modern speakers. Greek words have been widely borrowed into the European languages: astronomy, democracy, philosophy, thespian, etc. Moreover, Greek words and word elements continue to be productive as a basis for coinages: anthropology, photography, isomer, biomechanics etc. and form, with Latin words, the foundation of international scientific and technical vocabulary. See English words of Greek origin, and List of Greek words with English derivatives.

Classification

Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European language family. The ancient languages which were probably most closely related to it, Ancient Macedonian language (which may be regarded as a dialect of Greek) and Phrygian, are not well enough documented to permit detailed comparison. Among living languages, Armenian seems to be the most closely related to it.

Geographic distribution

Modern Greek is spoken by about 15 million people mainly in Greece and Cyprus. There are also Greek-speaking populations in Georgia, Ukraine, Egypt, Turkey, Albania, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Southern Italy. The language is spoken also in many other countries where Greeks have settled, including Armenia, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Netherlands, Sweden, United Kingdom, and the United States.

Official status

Greek is the official language of Greece where it is spoken by about 99.5% of the population. It is also, alongside Turkish, the official language of Cyprus. Due to the membership of Greece and Cyprus, Greek is one of the 20 official languages of the European Union.

Phonology

This section generally describes the post-Classic phonology of the Greek language. :All phonetic transcriptions in this section use the International Phonetic Alphabet

Vowel sounds

Greek has 5 vowel sounds, all phonemic:

One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church

In Christian theology, One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church is a phrase describing the nature of the Christian community and/or Christian Church, in the various meanings it has. It appears in the Nicene Creed () and appears partly in the Apostles' Creed ("the holy catholic church", sanctam ecclesiam catholicam). It indicates the Four Marks of the Christian Church — unity, holiness, universality and apostolicity — and is based on the premise that all true Christians (irrespective of race, nationality or sex) form a single united group, the body of Christ (cf. [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Corinthians%2012%20;&version=47;|1 Corinthians 12:27]), founded by the apostles and innately holy. While there is general agreement on the meaning of holy, there is less agreement on the definition of the one Church, and the meanings of catholic and apostolic continue to be debated.

Conflicting boundaries and definitions

The Roman Catholic Church, comprising both the Western and the Eastern Rites (understood as a collection of particular churches), claims to be the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church. The Eastern Orthodox Church, comprising about 16 mutually recognizing autocephalous hierarchical churches, similarly claims to be the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church. This disagreement has persisted since the Great Schism of 1054. Before that schism, the two were visibly united and claimed the title jointly (and were not known as Roman or Eastern). While the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Churches believe that the term "one" in the Nicene Creed describes and prescribes an institutional unity (from which each Church at present excludes the other), Protestant and evangelical Christians insist on a less visible unity dependent on inner faith in Christ. Despite these differing opinions and definitions, all Christians seek the unity which the early Christians were exhorted to preserve (cf. [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ephesians%204;&version=47;|"Ephesians 4:3-6"]), and for which Christ himself prayed (cf. [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=john%2017;&version=47;|"John 17:21"]).

Meaning of the words catholic and apostolic

Etymologically, the word "catholic" comes from the Greek adjective katholikos is the accusative feminine singular form — formed on the basis of the adverb "katholou" (), which means "in general", "according to the whole". The word "catholic" thus originally meant "general", "universal", and is often still used in that sense. In a religious context, especially if given a lower-case c, it distinguishes the faith or Church of the general body of Christians, as opposed to that of particular Christian groups. It is also used to indicate that a faith is for people of every place, culture and class, excluding none. Since the Protestant Reformation, the term may designate adherance to the doctrines and essential practices of the historical institutional Churches, including what the Reformers rejected. In this sense you tend to see Catholic spelled with an upper-case C. The Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Churches, and the Oriental Orthodox Churches all see themselves as fully, and indeed exclusively, catholic in all these senses. Anglicans of 'high church' or 'Anglo-Catholic' tradition consider themselves part of a "Catholic communion" not subject to the Holy See of Rome, and maintain beliefs and practices akin to those of the Roman Catholic Church, involving the sacraments and use of ritual in liturgy. Most other Protestants interpret "catholic" especially in it's credal context, as meaning "universal" i.e. referring to the complete, world-wide Church, as distinct from a particular institutional expression of Church. The Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Churches, and some within the Anglican Communion interpret the adjective apostolic as referring not only to the Church's origin from Christ's Apostles and their teaching, but also the Church's structure around bishops who have succeeded to the Apostles by unbroken Apostolic Succession transmitted by episcopal ordination ("laying on of hands"). In their view, Christian communities that lack this mark are not Churches in the full sense. On the other hand, most Protestants and Anglicans hold that the apostolic Church of the Creed corresponds to no one Christian denomination, but is instead the aggregate of all Christians, regardless of denominational allegiance, who hold the faith of the Apostles (preserved in the New Testament) and who further the mission of the Apostles (making disciples, baptising and teaching (Matthew 28:20)). A third interpretation, held by many in the Apostolic Churches movement, and some other pentecostals, is that 'Apostolic' refers to the charismatic gift of apostleship, which they claim (contrary to mainstream Christian interpretation) continues to be granted by the Spirit to the faithful Church today. Being Apostolic for these people means being lead and taught by modern Apostles, who are something like combination missionary/churchplanter/prophet/bishops.

Ignatius of Antioch

St. Ignatius of Antioch (died somewhere between AD 98 - AD 110 as a martyr in Rome) was the third Bishop or Patriarch of Antioch, after Saint Peter and Evodius, who died around AD 68. Eusebius, (Historia Eccl., II.iii.22) records that Ignatius succeeded Euodius. Making his apostolic succession even more immediate, Theodoret (Dial. Immutab., I, iv, 33a) reported that Peter himself appointed Ignatius to the see of Antioch. Ignatius, who also called himself Theophorus ("vessel of God"), was most likely a disciple of both Apostles Peter and John. Seven of his letters, used by Eusebius, have survived to this day; he is generally considered to be one of the Apostolic Fathers (the earliest authoritative group of the Church Fathers) and a saint by both the Catholic, who celebrate his feast day on February 1, and the Orthodox churches, who celebrate his feast day on December 20. Ignatius based his authority on living his life in imitation of Christ. Ignatius was arrested by the Roman authorities and transported to Rome under trying conditions: :"From Syria even to Rome I fight with wild beasts, by land and sea, by night and by day, being bound amidst ten leopards, even a company of soldiers, who only grow worse when they are kindly treated." — Ignatius to the Romans,5. His fate: to die a martyr in the arena. The Roman authorities hoped to make an example of him and thus discourage Christianity from spreading. Instead, he met with and encouraged Christians who flocked to meet him all along his route, and he wrote letters to the churches at Ephesus, Magnesia on the Maeander, Tralles, Philadelphia, Smyrna, and at Rome, as well as a letter to Polycarp, who was Bishop of Smyrna and, according to Christian tradition, a disciple of John the Evangelist. A detailed but spurious account of Ignatius' arrest and his travails and martyrdom is the material of the Martyrium Ignatii which is presented as being an eyewitness account for the church of Antioch, and as if written by Ignatius' companions, Philo of Cilicia, deacon at Tarsus, and Rheus Agathopus, a Syrian. Though Bishop Ussher regarded it as genuine, if there is any genuine nucleus of the Martyrium, it has been so greatly expanded with interpolations that no part of it is without questions. Its most reliable manuscript is the 10th century Codex Colbertinus (Paris), in which the Martyrium closes the collection. The Martyrium presents the confrontation of the bishop Ignatius with Trajan at Antioch, a familiar trope of Acta of the martyrs, and many details of the long, partly overland voyage to Rome. After Ignatius' martyrdom in the Flavian Amphitheatre, his remains were honorably carried back to Antioch by his companions, and were first interred outside the city gates, then removed by the Emperor Theodosius II to the Tychaeum, or Temple of Tyche which was converted into a Christian church dedicated to Ignatius. In 637 the relics were translated to St Clement's, Rome. The letters of Ignatius (if they are authentic, most modern scholars believe those found in the Apostolic Fathers are) have proved to be important testimony to the development of Christian theology, since the number of extant writings from this period of church history is very small. They bear signs of being written in great haste and without a proper plan, such as run-on sentences and an unsystematic succession of thought. Ignatius is the first known Christian writer to put great stress on loyality to a single bishop in each city, who is assisted by both presbyters (priests) and deacons. Earlier writings only mention either bishops or presbyters, and give the impression that there was usually more than one bishop per congregation. :"Plainly therefore we ought to regard the bishop as the Lord Himself" [IEph6:1] "your godly bishop" "the bishop presiding after the likeness of God and the presbyters after the likeness of the council of the Apostles, with the deacons also who are most dear to me, having been entrusted with the diaconate of Jesus Christ" "Therefore as the Lord did nothing without the Father, [being united with Him], either by Himself or by the Apostles, so neither do ye anything without the bishop and the presbyters." "Be obedient to the bishop and to one another, as Jesus Christ was to the Father [according to the flesh], and as the Apostles were to Christ and to the Father, that there may be union both of flesh and of spirit." [IMag2:1,6:1,7:1,13:2] "In like manner let all men respect the deacons as Jesus Christ, even as they should respect the bishop as being a type of the Father and the presbyters as the council of God and as the college of Apostles. Apart from these there is not even the name of a church." [ITr3:1] "follow your bishop, as Jesus Christ followed the Father, and the presbytery as the Apostles; and to the deacons pay respect, as to God's commandment" "He that honoureth the bishop is honoured of God; he that doeth aught without the knowledge of the bishop rendereth service to the devil" [ISmy8:1,9:1], Lightfoot translation Ignatius stressed the value of the eucharist, calling it "a medicine to immortality". The very strong desire for bloody martyrdom in the arena, which Ignatius expresses rather graphically in places, may seem quite odd to the modern reader, but an examination of his theology of soteriology shows that he regarded salvation as being from the power and fear of death. So, for him, to try to escape his martyrdom would be to fear death and place himself back under its power. Ignatius is claimed to be the first known Christian writer to advocate replacing the Sabbath with the Lord's Day: :"If then those who had walked in ancient practices attained unto newness of hope, no longer observing Sabbaths but fashioning their lives after the Lord's day, on which our life also arose through Him and through His death which some men deny -- a mystery whereby we attained unto belief, and for this cause we endure patiently, that we may be found disciples of Jesus Christ our only teacher" — Ignatius to the Magnesians 9.1, Lightfoot translation. However, like most 19th century translators, Lightfoot erred as the term day is missing from the Greek. At the time this was written, Κυριακήν did not mean “Lord’s Day” in the original, classic, Greek. The Greek term for day, ήμερα, was missing. Many 21st century scholars believe that since this passage was written about the Old Testament prophets who kept the Sabbath (i.e. Isaiah 58:13-14), that simply relying on verse 9.1, without showing that it is tied to the context in verses 8.1 & 8.2 (which the Greek demands) is an inaccurate portrayal of what Ignatius intended. Since the godly prophets had been keeping the Sabbath and because the portion of the Greek term translated as the first part of “no longer” is a ‘qualified negative’, the context supports that the ‘Judaic concepts’ are part of the qualification A much better, in context translation of Ignatius' writings, beginning with verse 8.1 would be: :"8.1 Be not seduced by strange doctrines nor by antiquated fables, which are profitless. :"8.2 For if even unto this day we live according to the manner of Judaic concepts, we admit that we have not received grace: for the godly prophets lived after Christ Jesus. For this cause also they were persecuted, being inspired by His grace to the end that they which are disobedient might be fully persuaded that there is one God who manifested Himself through Jesus Christ His Son, who is His Word that proceeded from silence, who in all things was well-pleasing unto Him that sent Him. :"9.1 If then those who had walked in ancient practices attained unto newness of hope, no longer keeping sabbaths Judaically, but in accordance with the Lord's way of life, on which our life also arose through Him and through His death which some men deny – a mystery whereby we attained unto belief, and for this cause we endure patiently, that we may be found disciples of Jesus Christ our only teacher – :"9.2 if this be so, how shall we be able to live apart from Him? Seeing that even the prophets, being His disciples, were expecting Him as their teacher through the Spirit. And for this cause He whom they rightly awaited, when He came, raised them from the dead." — Translated from the original Greek, which was found in Holmes M. Ignatius. Letter to the Magnesians. Holmes, pp. 158. Note: that although the expression Judaically is not in the surviving text, the original classic Greek demands that Ignatius was referring to the ancient prophets, who were not following non-biblical, Judaic, practices in the prior verses. By the 5th century, the collection had been enlarged by spurious letters, and the original letters had been improved with interpolations, created to posthumously enlist Ignatius as an unwitting witness in theological disputes of that age, while the purported eye-witness account of his martyrdom is also thought to be a forgery from around the same time.
External links

- [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/ignatius.html Early Christian writings]: on-line texts of Ignatius' letters
- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07644a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia:] St Ignatius of Antioch; the manuscript traditions and the controversy over authenticity
- [http://www.cogwriter.com/ignatius.htm Another Look at Ignatius and the Sabbath] This includes a translation and discussion of other portions of Ignatius' Letters and the Didache
- [http://www.romanity.org/htm/rom.11.en.the_ecclesiology_of_st._ignatius_of_antioch.01.htm The Ecclesiology of St. Ignatius of Antioch] by Fr. John S. Romanides Category:Christian martyrs Category:Ancient Roman Christianity Category:Patriarchs of Antioch Category:100s deaths

315

Events

- Eusebius becomes bishop of Caesarea (approximate date).

Births

- Cyril of Jerusalem, theologian (not confirmed)

Deaths

Category:315 ko:315년

386

:For the processor, see Intel 80386.

Events

- Beginning of the Northern Wei Dynasty in China when Northern Wei Dao Wu Di becomes its first king (see Northern dynasties)
- Theodosius I concludes peace with Persia, dividing Armenia between them.
- Theodosius I begins to rebuild the present-day Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls.
- John Chrysostom becomes a presbyter; he also writes eight homilies "adversus judaeos" ("against the Jews").
- Ambrose of Milan introduces hymn-singing in the Christian church.

Births

- Nestorius, founder of Nestorianism (estimated date)

Deaths

- abdicated Emperor Fei of Jin China
- Cyril of Jerusalem, theologian
- Demophilus of Constantinople, Patriarch of Constantinople

Creed

A creed is a statement of belief—usually religious belief—or faith.The word derives from the Latin credo for I believe.

Christian creeds

Christianity, affirming that God has been begotten and manifest in the human being Jesus, has formulated a number of statements of faith that seek to put its doctrine in a nutshell. In this sense, perhaps the earliest statement of Christian faith is the slogan affirming that Jesus is Lord, which appears in St Paul's Epistle to the Romans 10:9. The meaning and importance of this slogan comes from its affirmation that Jesus Christ is the full revelation of the God Yahweh of Judaism made incarnate, a doctrine thought impossible and indeed blasphemous by the rest of the Jewish community. As Christianity wrestled with the implications of this statement, its developing theology required more complex formulations.
Apostles' Creed
It is likely that the earliest creed of Christianity that deserves the title in full is the Apostles' Creed. Christian mythology attributes this creed to all twelve Apostles as a joint composition, and assigns one phrase of the creed to each Apostle. This attribution is unlikely, but the creed itself is quite old; it seems to have developed from a catechism used in the baptism of adults, and in that form can be traced as far back as the second century. The Apostles' Creed seems to have been formulated to resist Docetism and similar ideas associated with Gnosticism; it emphasizes the birth, physical death, and bodily resurrection of Jesus Christ. The Nicene Creed clearly derives from the Apostles' Creed, and equally obviously represents an elaboration of its basic themes. The most salient additions to this creed are much more elaborate statements concerning Christology and the Trinity. These reflect the concerns of the First Council of Nicaea in 325 A. D., and have their chief purpose the rejection of Arianism, which the church adjudged a heresy. In the Roman Catholic liturgy the Nicene Creed is repeated during each Mass. Christians today probably use the Nicene Creed most widely, followed by the Apostles Creed.
A creed as a catalogue of heresies
In an atmosphere of increasingly complicated theological controversy, orthodox belief might become more complicated in outline. In the decade before 594, Gregory, bishop of Tours set out to write a Historia Francorum ("History of the Franks"). In Gaul, a part of Europe recently beset with both royal Arians and royal pagans (until the conversion of Clovis), Gregory prefaced his history with a declaration of his faith, "so that my reader may have no doubt that I am Catholic" (Book I.i). The confession is in many phrases, each of which refutes a specific Christian heresy. Thus Gregory's creed presents, in negative, a virtual catalogue of heresies: :I believe, then, in God the Father omnipotent. I believe in Jesus Christ his only Son, our Lord God, born of the Father, not created. [I believe] that he has always been with the Father, not only since time began but before all time. For the Father could not have been so named unless he had a son; and there could be no son without a father. But as for those who say: "There was a time when he was not," [note: A leading belief of Arian Christology.] I reject them with curses, and call men to witness that they are separated from the church. I believe that the word of the Father by which all things were made was Christ. I believe that this word was made fresh and by its suffering the world was redeemed, and I believe that humanity, not deity, was subject to the suffering. I believe that he rose again on the third day, that he freed sinful man, that he ascended to heaven, that he sits on the right hand of the Father, that he will come to judge the living and the dead. I believe that the holy Spirit proceeded from the Father and the Son, that it is not inferior and is not of later origin, but is God, equal and always coeternal with the Father and the Son, consubstantial in its nature, equal in omnipotence, equally eternal in its essence, and that it has never existed apart from the Father and the Son and is not inferior to the Father and the Son. I believe that this holy Trinity exists with separation of persons, and one person is that of the Father, another that the Son, another that of the Holy Spirit. And in this Trinity confess that there is one Deity, one power, one essence. I believe that the blessed Mary was a virgin after the birth as she was a virgin before. I believe that the soul is immortal but that nevertheless it has no part in deity. And I faithfully believe all things that were established at Nicæa by the three hundred and eighteen bishops. But as to the end of the world I hold beliefs which I learned from our forefathers, that Antichrist will come first. An Antichrist will first propose circumcision, asserting that he is Christ; next he will place his statue in the temple at Jerusalem to be worshipped, just as we read that the Lord said: "You shall see the abomination of desolation standing in the holy place." But the Lord himself declared that that day is hidden from all men, saying; "But of that day and that hour knoweth no one not even the anger in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father alone." Moreover we shall here make answer to the heretics [note: the Arians] who attack us, asserting that the Son is inferior to the Father since he is ignorant of this day. Let them learn then that Son here is the name applied to the Christian people, of whom God says: "I shall be to them a father and they shall be to me for sons." For if he had spoken these words of the onlybegotten Son he would never have given the angels first place. For he uses these words: "Not even the angels in heaven nor the Son," showing that he spoke these words not of the only-begotten but of the people of adoption. But our end is Christ himself, who will graciously bestow eternal life on us if we turn to him." [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/gregory-hist.html#book3]
Other creeds
Other notable creeds include the:
- Athanasian Creed
- Chalcedonian Creed
- Social Creed (Methodist)
- The Masai Creed is a creed composed in about 1960 by Western Christian missionaries for the Masai people of East Africa. The missionaries were from the Congregation of the Holy Ghost. The creed attempts to express the essentials of the Christian faith within the Masai culture.
Islamic creeds
The most basic attempt to put the religion of Islam in a brief statement of doctrine is the shahada, the proclamation that there is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is His prophet. More detailed credal declarations of Islamic dogma constitute aqidah.
See also

- American's Creed
- Articles of Faith
- Book of Concord
- Pledge of Allegiance
- Thirty-Nine Articles
- Westminster Confession of Faith
Further reading

- [http://www.creeds.net The Creeds of Christendom] A website linking to many formal Christian declarations of faith.
- [http://yalepress.yale.edu/YupBooks/viewbook.asp?isbn=0300093896 Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition]. Edited by Jaroslav Pelikan and Valerie Hotchkiss. Published by Yale University Press in 2003.
- [http://www.scientology.org/world/worldeng/corp/creed.htm The Creed of the Church of Scientology]. Category:Christianity Category:Islam

Apostles' Creed

The Apostles' Creed (in Latin, Symbolum (Credo) Apostolicum), is an early statement of Christian belief, possibly from the first or second century, but more likely post-Nicene Creed in the early 4th Century AD. The theological specifics of the creed appear to be a refutation of Gnosticism, an early heresy. The Apostles' Creed is widely used by a number of Christian denominations for both liturgical and catechetical purposes, most visibly by liturgical churches of Western tradition, including Roman (Latin-rite) Catholic churches, Lutheran churches, member churches of the Anglican Communion, and Western Orthodox denominations. Although many Lutheran sources label the Apostles' Creed as "ecumenical", its use appears to be restricted to churches whose rituals are derived of the Latin rite. The Apostles' Creed holds a special place in Roman Catholic tradition as the "ancient Baptismal symbol of the Church of Rome".

Text of the Creed

Source: :Credo in Deum, Patrem omnipotentem, Creatorem caeli et terrae, :et in Iesum Christum, Filium Eius unicum, Dominum nostrum, qui conceptus est de Spiritu Sancto, natus ex Maria Virgine, passus sub Pontio Pilato, crucifixus, mortuus, et sepultus, descendit ad inferos, tertia die resurrexit a mortuis, ascendit ad caelos, sedet ad dexteram Patris omnipotentis, inde venturus est iudicare vivos et mortuos. :Credo in Spiritum Sanctum, sanctam Ecclesiam catholicam, sanctorum communionem, remissionem peccatorum, carnis resurrectionem, vitam aeternam. :Amen

Ecumenical Translation into English (ICET/ELLC)

The following translation is believed to be prevalent in those denominations which have adopted modern English liturgical translations. It was authored by a consultation of Catholic and Protestant ecclesiastical communities. See first source for details. Sources: ; :I believe in God, the Father almighty, :creator of heaven and earth. :I believe in Jesus Christ, God's only Son, our Lord. :He was conceived by the power of the Holy Spirit :and born of the Virgin Mary. :He suffered under Pontius Pilate, :was crucified, died, and was buried. :He descended into hell. :On the third day he rose again. :He ascended into heaven, :and is seated at the right hand of the Father. :He will come again to judge the living and the dead. :I believe in the Holy Spirit, :the holy catholic Church, :the communion of saints, :the forgiveness of sins, :the resurrection of the body, :and the life everlasting. Amen.

Variations in Liturgical Use

Translation of inferos

: The word inferos is translated in some denominational contexts as dead, as in "He descended to the dead." See The Harrowing of Hell for a more detailed discussion of this part of the creed.

Methodism

The United Methodists commonly incorporate the Apostles' Creed into their worship services. Many favor this interpretation as poetically elegant. The version used is #881 of the United Methodist Hymnal, one of the most popular hymnals and one with a heritage to John Wesley, founder of Methodism.[http://catalystresources.org/issues/272yee.html][http://catalystresources.org/issues/312knight.html] :I believe in God the Father Almighty, :maker of heaven and earth; :And in Jesus Christ his only Son our Lord: :who was conceived by the Holy Spirit, :born of the Virgin Mary, :suffered under Pontius Pilate, :was crucified, dead, and buried; :the third day he rose from the dead; :he ascended into heaven, :and sitteth at the right hand of God the Father Almighty; :from thence he shall come to judge the quick and the dead. :I believe in the Holy Spirit, :the holy catholic church, :the communion of saints, :the forgiveness of sins, :the resurrection of the body, :and the life everlasting. Amen.

Rites of Baptism in Western Liturgical Christianity

The liturgical communities in western Christianity which derive their rituals from the Roman Missal, including those particular communities which use the Roman Missal itself (Roman Catholics), the Book of Common Prayer (Anglicans / Episcopalians), the Lutheran Book of Worship (Evangelical Lutherans), Lutheran Worship (Missouri-Synod Lutherans), and many other derivatives of the Roman Missal in English and many other languages, use the Apostles' Creed and interrogative variations of it within their similar rites of Baptism, considered by all of these communities to be the first sacrament of initiation into the Church.

Episcopal Church (USA)

The Episcopal Church uses the Apostles' Creed as a Baptismal Covenant for those who are to receive the Rite of Baptism. Regardless of age, candidates are to be sponsored by parents and/or godparents. Youths able to understand the significance of the Rite may go through the ritual speaking for themselves. Younger children and infants rely on their sponsors to act upon their behalf. 1. The celebrant calls for the candidates for Baptism to be presented. 2. The catechumen or sponsors state their request for Baptism 3a. If the catechumen is of age, the celebrant will ask him or her if he or she desires Baptism, which the catechumen will state he or she says "I do." 3b. If the candidate relies on sponsors, the celebrant asks them if they will raise the child in "the Christian faith and life" (ECUSA BCP), and will raise the child through "prayers and witness to grow into the full stature of Christ" to which the parents will state to each, "I will, with God's help." 4. A series of questions are then asked, to which the reply is always "I renounce them": :Do you renounce Satan and all the spiritual forces of wickedness that rebel against God? :Do you renounce the evil powers of this world which corrupt and destroy the creatures of God? :Do you renounce all sinful desires that draw you from the love of God? 5. The second half of the query is asked, to which the reply is always "I do": :Do you turn to Jesus Christ and accept him as your Savior? :Do you put your whole trust in his grace and love? :Do you promise to follow and obey him as your Lord? 6. The Apostle's Creed is then recited, in which is divided into three parts; the celebrant asks whether they believe in the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, to which the Creed is stated in its three divisions in respect to the Three Persons of the Trinity.

Roman Catholic and Lutheran Rite of Baptism

An interrogative form of the Apostles' Creed is used in the Rite of Baptism (for both children and adults). The minister of baptism asks the following questions (ICEL, 1974): :Do you reject sin so as to live in the freedom of God's children? :Do you reject Satan, father of sin and prince of darkness? :Do you believe in God, the Father almighty, creator of heaven and earth? :Do you believe in Jesus Christ, his only Son, our Lord, who was born of the Virgin Mary, was crucified, died, and was buried, rose from the dead, an is now seated at the right hand of the Father? :Do you believe in the Holy Spirit, the holy catholic Church, the communion of saints, the forgiveness of sins, the resurrection of the body, and life everlasting? To each, the catechumen, or, in the case of an infant, the parents and sponsor(s) (godparent(s)) in his or her place, answers "I do."

Roman Catholic Profession of Faith at Mass

Although the canonical creed is in the first person singular, the rubrics of the Roman Missal require that when it is recited in the context of the Sacred Liturgy it is expressed in the first person plural. The Apostles' Creed is specified for use in Masses with children or for other pastoral reasons approved by the relevant prelate (ICEL, 1974); in other circumstances, the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed (with the added filioque) is used.

Origin of the Creed

Many hypotheses exist concerning the date and nature of the origin of the Apostles' Creed. There is no Catholic dogmatic teaching on its origin. One legend proposes that the creed was originally formulated in twelve articles, each written by an Apostle after the Pentecost under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit. Some historians place the origin of the Apostles' Creed as late as fifth century Gaul. The earliest known concrete historical evidence of the creed's existence as it is currently titled (Symbolum Apostolicum) is a letter of the Council of Milan (390 AD) to Pope Siricius (here in English): ::"If you credit not the teachings of the priests . . . let credit at least be given to the Symbol of the Apostles which the Roman Church always preserves and maintains inviolate." The public domain Catholic Encyclopedia contains a [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01629a.htm detailed discussion] of the origin of the Apostles' Creed.

Theological issues

It does not address some of the Christological issues associated with the later Nicene Creed and other Christian Creeds. In particular, it was acceptable to many Arians and Unitarians.

References

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- Category:Christianity Category:Christian texts category:Christian Confessions, Creeds and Statements Category:Christian prayer Category:Ancient Roman Christianity ko:사도신경 ms:Pengakuan Iman Rasuli

Christian Denominations

List of Christian denominations (or Denominations self-identified as Christian) ordered by historical and doctrinal relationships. (See also: Christianity; Christian denominations). Some denominations are large (e.g. Roman Catholic, Lutherans, Anglicans or Baptists) while others are just a few small churches, and in most cases the relative size is not evident in this list. Also, modern movements such as Fundamentalist Christianity, Pietism, Evangelicalism, Pentecostalism and the Holiness movement sometimes cross denominational lines, or in some cases create new denominations out of two or more continuing groups (as is the case for many United / Uniting churches, for example). Such subtleties and complexities are not clearly depicted here. This is not a complete list, but aims to provide a comprehensible overview of the diversity that exists among denominations of Christianity, whose branches are collectively referred to as Christendom. Some links may point to non-existent articles. There are approximately 250+ branches listed here. Between denominations, theologians and comparative religionists, there are considerable disagreements about which groups can be properly called Christian denominations. These disagreements rise primarily from doctrinal differences between different groups. For the purpose of simplicity, this list is intended to reflect the self-understanding of each denomination. Explanations about different opinions concerning their statuses as Christian denominations can be found at their respective articles.

Catholicism

Catholic churches accepting the primacy of the Roman Pontiff

- Albanian Catholic Church
- Armenian Catholic Church
- Belarusian Catholic Church
- Bulgarian Catholic Church
- Byzantine Catholic Church
- Chaldean Catholic Church
- Coptic Catholic Church
- Ethiopian Catholic Church
- Georgian Catholic Church
- Greek Catholic Church
- Hungarian Catholic Church
- Italo-Albanian Catholic Church
- Latin Church
- Maronite Catholic Church
- Melkite Catholic Church
- Romanian Catholic Church
- Russian Catholic Church
- Ruthenian Catholic Church
- Serbian Catholic Church
- Slovak Catholic Church
- Syrian Catholic Church
- Syro-Malabar Catholic Church
- Syro-Malankara Catholic Church
- Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church The Latin Church, the most common form of Catholicism in Western Europe and North America, is sometimes said to be "the Roman Catholic Church." However, Catholics in full communion with Rome regard all of the above to be particular churches of the Catholic Church.

Catholic churches closely related to, but not accepting the primacy of the Roman Pontiff

- American Catholic Church in the United States
- Brazilian Catholic Apostolic Church
- Catholic Apostolic National Church
- Catholic Apostolic Church
- Catholic Apostolic Church in North America (CACINA)
- Catholic Life Church
- Celtic Catholic Church
- Charismatic Episcopal Church
- Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association
- Christ Catholic Church
- Free Catholic Church
- Liberal Catholic Church
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