Bachelor of Philosophy

Bachelor of Philosophy (B.Phil.; occasionally B.Ph. or Ph.B.) is the title of an academic degree. Despite its name, in most universities it is a graduate degree taken only by those who have already gained an undergraduate degree.

University of Oxford

The B.Phil.'s best-known, and perhaps earliest, form is as a University of Oxford graduate degree. Originally, Oxford named its pre-doctoral graduate degrees the Bachelor of Philosophy (B.Phil.) (a two-year degree, partly taught and partly by research) and the Bachelor of Letters (B.Litt.) (a two-year research degree). After complaints, especially from overseas students, that this naming convention often meant that graduate degrees were not being recognised as such, the University renamed them Master of Philosophy (M.Phil.) and Master of Letters (M.Litt.). However, the [http://www.philosophy.ox.ac.uk/ Philosophy Faculty] (then a Sub-Faculty) argued that its B.Phil. degree had become so well-known and respected in the philosophical world that it would be confusing to change the name; thus in philosophy, and only in philosophy, the degree continues to be called the B.Phil. (Those who pass the degree are given the choice of taking a B.Phil. or an M.Phil.; few if any choose the latter.) Today's Oxford B.Phil. course is a two-year programme of three taught courses and a research thesis (max. 30,000 words). The taught courses are all examined by essays chosen from prescribed lists; candidates submit two essays for each course, or six essays in total, in addition to their theses. The B.Phil. is regarded as a very demanding degree, and it is not suitable for those with no academic background in philosophy; the entrance requirements and pass marks are both very high. The Oxford B.Phil. was designed to be a preparation for teaching philosophy at university level. See the [http://www.admin.ox.ac.uk/postgraduate/caz/philosophy.shtml Oxford University Graduate Studies Prospectus: Philosophy].

Outside Oxford

Some universities have adopted the Oxford model of the B.Phil. as a graduate degree, either as originally intended (in a variety of subjects) or as it has subsequently developed (in philosophy only); for example, [http://www.dharmaram.com/bphil.htm Dharmaram Vidya Kshetram] and the [http://www.ncl.ac.uk/hss/postgrad/international/ University of Newcastle upon Tyne]. Others use the term "Bachelor of Philosophy" in a more intuitive way, to refer to an undergraduate Bachelor's degree in philosophy; for example, [http://www.scs.northwestern.edu/ugrad/requirements/ Northwestern University] and [http://www.psu.edu/bulletins/bluebook/major/b_ph.htm Pennsylvania State University]. At undergraduate level, however, the degree is frequently non-standard, being research-based or involving a considerable amount of independent study. This is the case, for example, at the undergraduate Honours College of the University of Pittsburgh, where the B.Phil. requires the oral defence of a thesis; and at the [http://info.anu.edu.au/StudyAt/_Science/Undergraduate/Programs/_4660HPHB.asp Australian National University], where the Bachelor of Philosophy (Ph.B.) is an individually tailored, research-based undergraduate degree in the sciences. Philosophy,Bachelor of

Academic degree

This article is about academic degrees. For other degrees, see Degree (disambiguation) A degree is any of a wide range of awards made by institutions of higher education, such as universities, normally as the result of successfully completing a program of study.

History

The first universities were founded in Europe in the 12th and 13th centuries. As with other professions, teaching in universities was only carried out by people who were properly qualified. In the same way that a carpenter would attain the status of master carpenter when fully qualified by his guild, a teacher would become a master when he had been licensed by his profession, the teaching guild. Candidates who had completed three or four years of study in the prescribed texts of the trivium (grammar, rhetoric and logic), and who had successfully passed examinations held by their masters, would be awarded a bachelor's degree. Thus a degree was only a step on the way to becoming a fully-qualified master – hence the English word graduate, which is based on the Latin gradus ("step"). Today the terms master, doctor and professor signify different levels of academic achievement, but initially they were equivalent terms. The University of Bologna in Italy, regarded as the oldest university in Europe, was the first institution to award the degree of Doctor in Civil Law in the late 12th century; it also awarded similar degrees in other subjects including medicine. Note that medicine is now the only field in which the term doctor is applied to students who have only obtained their first academic qualification. The University of Paris used the term master for its graduates, a practice adopted by the English universities of Oxford and Cambridge as well as the "ancient" Scottish universities of St Andrew's, Glasgow, Aberdeen and Edinburgh. The naming of degrees eventually became linked with the subjects studied. Scholars in the faculties of arts or grammar became known as masters, but those in philosophy, medicine and law were known as doctor. As study in the arts or in grammar was a necessary prerequisite to study in subjects such as philosophy, medicine and law, the degree of doctor assumed a higher status than the master's degree. This led to the modern hierarchy in which the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) is a more advanced degree than the Master of Arts (M.A.). The practice of using the term doctor for all advanced degrees developed within German universities and spread across the academic world. The French terminology is tied closely to the original meanings of the terms. The baccalauréat (cf. bachelor) is conferred upon French students who have successfully completed their secondary education and admits the student to university. When students graduate from university, they are awarded licence, much as the medieval teaching guilds would have done, and they are qualified to teach in secondary schools or proceed to higher-level studies. In Europe, degrees are being harmonised through the Bologna process, which is based on the three-level hierarchy of degrees (Bachelor (Licence in France), Master, Doctor). This system is currently in use in the United Kingdom, the United States, Germany, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. This system is gradually replacing the two-stage system now in use in some countries.

Types of academic degrees

Some examples of specific degrees follow each general term. For more information, see the article about the general term.
- Associate's degrees (U.S.): AA, ABS, AS
- Foundation degrees (U.K.): FdA, FdEd, FdEng, FdMus, FdSc, FdTech
- Bachelor's degrees: AB, BA, BComm, BE, BS, BSc, BFA, BCL, LLB, BM, BBA, BChir, BEng, MBChB, SB, BSSc
- Master's degrees: MA, MS, MSc, JD
- , MALD, MApol, MPhil, MRes, MFA, MTh, M.T.S., M.Div., MBA, MPA, MSW, MPAff, MLIS, MLitt, MPM, MPP, MPT, MRE, LLM, MEng, MSci, MChem, MPhys, MMath, MMus, MESci, MGeol, MTCM, MSSc, BCL (Oxon)#, BPhil (Oxon)#.
- Specialist degrees: EdS, B.Acc., C.A.S.,
- Doctorate degrees: PhD, EdD
- , EngD, DNursSci, DBA, DD, DSc, DLitt, DA, DMA, DMus, DCL, ThD, PharmD, DPT, DPhil, DOM, OMD, PsyD, DSW, LL.D, J.S.D. and S.J.D.
- Note: In the U.S., despite its name, the J.D. degree is not a doctoral level degree. It is a first professional degree and does not confer the title of doctor. While normally taken after a bachelors-level degree, neither is the J.D. a masters-level degree. The LL.M., which is earned after the J.D., is a masters-level law degree. The S.J.D. (Doctor of Juridical Science) is considered a doctoral-level degree and is the highest degree one can attain in law. Also, in the U.S., holders of the EdD (doctor of education) are considered "doctorally prepared" only within the field of education (see, for example, [http://www.aacsb.edu/ AACSB] rules for accreditation)[http://www.academicforum.co.uk .] #Note: Despite their names, the Bachelor of Civil Law (BCL) and the Bachelor of Philosophy (BPhil) offered at Oxford University are both advanced master's degrees (in law and philosophy respectively). In some countries, such as Australia, a diploma is a specific academic award of lower rank than an academic degree. Australia has several different types of diplomas: Diplomas, Advanced Diplomas, Graduate Diplomas and Postgraduate Diplomas. A diploma can also be an additional course taken after a standard bachelor's degree giving specilisation in a particular field. For example, Australian schoolteachers often study a bachelor's degree in Arts or Science (with a significant education component) for the first three years, then in their final year complete a Diploma of Education (DipEd), which qualifies them as school teachers. In Ireland a National Diploma is below the standard of the honours bachelor degree, whilst the Higher Diploma is taken after the bachelor degree. In Germany, there are several academic degrees. The lowest degree is the Bachelor (equivalent to a English Bachelor (hons.)), the (equivalent) Diplom (FH) or Diplom I. After that follows the Diplom II, Diplom (University), the Magister (in humanities) or the Master. After a Diplom II, Diplom (University), a Magister or a Master students can proceed to a doctorate. The highest academic degree in Germany is the Habilitation. The situation in Austria is similar to the situation in Germany: The students get a Diploma as well, but they graduate either with a Magister degree or with a Diploma. This depends on the faculty: arts, sciences and fine arts earn a Magister degree, while technical sciences get a Diploma in engineering. So the degree that, for example, an Information Technology student earns is "Diplom-Ingenieur".

University of Oxford

The University of Oxford, located in the city of Oxford, England, is the oldest university in the English-speaking world. The university traces its roots back to at least the end of the 11th century, although the exact date of foundation remains unclear. According to legend, after riots between scholars and townsfolk broke out in 1209, some of the academics at Oxford fled north-east to the town of Cambridge, where the University of Cambridge was founded. The two universities have since had a long history of competition with each other, and are widely seen as the most prestigious universities in the United Kingdom (see Oxbridge rivalry). Oxford has recently topped two university-ranking league tables produced by British newspapers: it came first according to The Guardian and, for the fourth consecutive year, in The Times table. Although widely contested (as with most league tables) on the basis of their ranking criteria, recent international tables produced by Shanghai Jiao Tong University rated Oxford tenth[http://ed.sjtu.edu.cn/rank/2005/ARWU2005_Top100.htm] in the world. Oxford is a member of the Russell Group of research-led British universities, the Coimbra Group (a network of leading European universities), the LERU (League of European Research Universities), and is also a core member of the Europaeum.

History

Europaeum The date of the University's foundation is unknown, and indeed it may not have been a single event, but there is evidence of teaching there as early as 1096. When Henry II of England forbade English students to study at the University of Paris in 1167, Oxford began to grow very quickly. The foundation of the first halls of residence, which later became colleges, dates from this period. Rioting in 1209 led many scholars to leave Oxford for other parts of the country, leading to the establishment of a university in Cambridge. On June 20 1214, a charter of liberties was granted to the University by Nicholas de Romanis, the papal legate, which authorised the appointment of a chancellor of the University. Riots between townsmen and scholars ("town and gown") were common until the St Scholastica Day riot in 1355 led to the king confirming the supremacy of the University over the town. In 1555 - 6 the Protestant Oxford Martyrs, Latimer, Ridley and Cranmer were burned at Oxford. The University's status was formally confirmed by an Act for the Incorporation of Both Universities in 1571, in which the University's formal title is given as The Chancellor, Masters and Scholars of the University of Oxford. In 1603 the University granted the right to appoint two Members of Parliament, a right which lasted until the abolition of university constituencies in 1949. The comprehensive set of statutes, known as the Laudian Code, was drawn up by Archbishop William Laud in 1636 and ratified by Charles I. The University supported the king during the English Civil War, and was the site of his court and parliament, but clashed with his grandson, the Roman Catholic James II, who was later overthrown in the Glorious Revolution. In the 1830s the University was the site of the Oxford Movement in the Church of England. A Royal Commission to reform the University was appointed in 1850 and its proposals, accepted by Parliament, revolutionised the medieval workings of the University, until then still governed by the code of 1636. Later royal commissions were appointed in 1872 and 1919. In 1871 the Universities Tests Act opened the University to Dissenters and Roman Catholics. The first women's halls were established in 1878, and women were admitted to degrees in 1920.

Organisation

Oxford is a collegiate university, consisting of the University's central facilities, such as departments and faculties, libraries and science facilities, and 39 colleges and 7 Permanent Private Halls (PPHs). All teaching staff and degree students must belong to one of the colleges (or PPHs). These colleges are not only houses of residence, but have substantial responsibility for the teaching of undergraduates and postgraduates. Some colleges only accept postgraduate students. Only one of the colleges, St Hilda's, remains single-sex, accepting only women (though several of the religious PPHs are male-only). Oxford's collegiate system springs from the fact that the University came into existence through the gradual agglomeration of independent institutions in the city of Oxford. : See also: Colleges of Oxford University, and a list of Cambridge sister colleges. Image:brasnose.JPG
Brasenose College in the 1670s As well as the collegiate level of organisation, the University is subdivided into departments on a subject basis, much like most other universities. Departments take a major role in graduate education and an increasing role in undergraduate education, providing lectures and classes and organising examinations. Departments are also a centre of research, funded by outside bodies including major research councils; while colleges have an interest in research, few are subject-specialized in organisa

Category:Bachelor's degrees

Category:Qualifications Category:Academic degrees

Protocol for SYnchronous Conferencing

Bitte wikifizieren. WikiCare ^{Mach mit!} 01:43, 6. Nov 2005 (CET) ----

Protocol for SYnchronous Conferencing

PSYC ist ein flexibles Protokoll zum Aufbau einer weltweiten verteilten Messaging-Infrastruktur primär für text-basierte Konferenzschaltungen (auch Chats oder Chatsysteme genannt). Es entstand mit der Zielsetzung, das Internet- Relay- Chat- System ersetzen zu können, hat sich aber weiterentwickelt zur Unterstützung von multimedialer Kommunikation und kann auf allerlei Einsatzzwecke zugeschnitten werden. Bestehende Kommunikationssysteme können relativ leicht in das PSYC-Netzwerk eingebunden werden, da die PSYC-Infrastruktur seinen Empfängern einfache feste Adressen zuweist. Eine Nachricht einem oder mehreren menschlichen Empfängern zu senden beispielsweise, egal ob diese online sind und woher, reduziert sich darauf einige Zeilen Text in eine fest adressierbare TCP-Verbindung zu schicken, oder als signiertes UDP Paket zu versenden. Softwaretechnisch also ein Handgriff. Der Grundgedanke ist es, eine weltweite Datenbank über die Anwesenheit von Personen und Existenz von Konferenzen gar nicht erst aufzubauen, sondern ganz wie im Web den Ressourcen und Personen URL-konforme Locators zuzuweisen, und daraufhin die Client-Programme direkte oder smart geroutete Verbindungen untereinander aufbauen zu lassen. Die Server nehmen dabei eine vermittelnde Hilfestellung ein, und sind von Datenbank oder Routingproblemen gänzlich befreit. Passend dazu kommt ein minimalistisches Konferenzsteuerungsprotokoll, welches totale Programmierbarkeit der Politik des Konferenzraumes ermöglicht (Wer darf hinein? Wer darf nur zuhören? etc.). Zugleich kann die Zustellung der Nachrichten durch Multicast- Protokolle optimiert werden. Der Server trägt nicht die Last der eigentlichen Kommunikation, es sei denn man möchte es so. Das PSYC-Netz ähnelt eher dem Web als einem IRC-Netzwerk: Auf jedem Rechner im Internet kann vom Besitzer/Administator ein eigener, gleichgestellter PSYC-Server betrieben werden - ohne Hierarchien, ohne besondere Berechtigungen für Administratoren, außer dem Recht, zu entscheiden, welche Räume und Personen man hostet. Mißbraucht ein Administrator seine Macht, wechseln seine Benutzer einfach auf einen anderen PSYC-Server. Somit gibt es einen direkten Wettbewerb, und als Administrator ist man gezwungen, sich zu benehmen. PSYC wurde 1995 erstmals theoretisch niedergeschrieben. Die Software-Implementation ist seit 2005 soweit fertig und einsatzbereit, wobei die "unvollständigen" Versionen seit 1997 produktiv im Einsatz waren. Die Referenzsoftware für PSYC ist der psycMUVE.

Weblinks

- Weitere Information zu PSYC unter http://psyc.pages.de

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