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Alexander Hamilton

Alexander Hamilton

, 1792.]] Alexander Hamilton (January 11, 1755 or 1757 – July 12, 1804) was an American politician, statesman, journalist, lawyer, and soldier. One of the United States' most prominent and brilliant early constitutional lawyers, he was an influential delegate to the U.S. Constitutional Convention and the principal author of the Federalist Papers, which successfully defended the U.S. Constitution to skeptical New Yorkers. He also put the new United States of America onto a sound economic footing as its first and most influential Secretary of the Treasury, establishing the First Bank of the United States, public credit and the foundations for American capitalism and stock and commodity exchanges. Alexander Hamilton died in a duel with fellow politician Aaron Burr.

Early years

Aaron Burr Alexander Hamilton was born in the West Indies island of Nevis to James Hamilton, a businessman from Scotland, and Rachel Fawcett Lavien of French Huguenot descent, who was then married to another man. (The couple lived apart from one another under an order of legal separation. Remarriage was forbidden by law at the time.) There is some uncertainty as to the year of Hamilton's birth. Throughout his life, Hamilton stated that it was 1757, and that year went unquestioned for centuries. More recent examinations of probate court records at St. Croix indicate the year was 1755 (though the year is not explicitly noted) and for several decades it has been the more commonly cited year. According to Hamilton biographer Ron Chernow, Hamilton may have misrepresented his age upon entering King's College because he was relatively old for a university freshman, which may explain the discrepancy between the court records and Hamilton's own statements about his birth year. The date, January 11, can be neither substantiated nor refuted, and is still commonly accepted. Hamilton was always sensitive to the fact that, under the laws of the time, he was born illegitimately. Hamilton's father abandoned him, and his mother died when he was in his early teens. Business misfortunes having caused his father's bankruptcy, and his mother having died in 1768, young Hamilton was thrown upon the care of maternal relatives at Saint Croix, where he entered the counting house of Nicholas Cruger. Shortly afterward, Cruger, going abroad, left the boy in charge of the business. An accomplishment later of great service to Hamilton was his familiar command of French; common enough in the Antilles, but very rare in the English continental colonies. As a teenager, Hamilton wrote a letter, published in a local paper, about a hurricane that had severely battered the West Indies. The letter was so dramatically written that it caused a sensation and the town soon raised money to fund his passage to America. After six months in Elizabeth, New Jersey, he settled in New York City in 1772, and began grammar school. Later, he attended King's College (now Columbia University), originally studying anatomy with the intent of becoming a doctor. A visit to Boston seems to have thoroughly confirmed the conclusion, to which reason had already led him, that he should cast in his fortunes with the colonists. He threw himself into their cause with ardour. In 1774-1775 he wrote two influential anonymous pamphlets, which were attributed to John Jay; they show remarkable maturity and controversial ability, and rank high among the political arguments of the time. He organized an artillery company, was awarded its captaincy on examination, won the interest of Nathanael Greene and Washington by the proficiency and bravery he displayed in the campaign of 1776 around New York City. He joined Washington's staff in March 1777 with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and during four years served as his private secretary and confidential aide. The important duties with which he was entrusted attest Washington's entire confidence in his abilities and character; then and afterwards. Indeed, reciprocal confidence and respect took the place of personal attachment in their relations. But Hamilton was ambitious for military glory. It was an ambition he never lost. He became impatient of detention in what he regarded as a position of unpleasant dependence, and (Feb. 1781) he seized a slight reprimand administered by Washington as an excuse for abandoning his staff position. Later he secured a field command, through Washington, and won laurels at Yorktown, where he led the American column in the final assault on the British fortifications. On December 14, 1780 he married Elizabeth Schuyler, daughter of General Philip Schuyler, and thus became allied with one of the most distinguished families in New York. Hamilton was very intelligent, talented and a quick study. At the start of his teenage years he was an impoverished orphan with no family connections, working as a clerk on the island of St. Croix in the Caribbean. By the close of his teenage years he was in America, General George Washington's most trusted aide-de-camp, an accomplished artillery captain, and a published pamphleteer renowned in New York. It was while on the battlefield, however, that Hamilton began formulating the ideas on government and economics that would make him an historic figure. He saw how the war was prolonged and the army was deprived of needed supplies by Congress's relative powerlessness vis-a-vis the states, and was one of the earliest and most active nationalists. Hamilton, like Washington, believed that the Continental Congress needed to be strengthened or reformed in favor of a new, stronger Federal government that could legislate without being hamstrung by the states. Hamilton became the spokesman for an active centralized government, stressing the principle of government "responsibility," against the Jeffersonian/Madisonian principle of public vigilance and suspicion of government power. Recent scholars have argued that these two philosophies form the thesis-antithesis of the post-Revolutionary era. Continental Congress Leaving Washington's staff, Hamilton took command of an infantry regiment that participated in the siege of Yorktown, and led the assault that captured Redoubt #10. After the war he served as a member of the Continental Congress (from 1782 to 1783), and then retired to open his own law office in New York City. His public career resumed when he attended the Annapolis Convention as a delegate in 1786. He also served in the New York State Legislature and attended the Constitutional Convention in 1787. Throughout the convention's proceedings Hamilton, a Federalist, argued consistently for a strong central government, including a king-like president (minus the familial inheritance of power), and an upper legislative body based on the English House of Lords. For this, he was long derided by political foes as a monarchist. Hamilton opposed equal representation in the Senate, saying the concept "shocks too much the ideas of justice and every human feeling." He also wanted senators to serve for life, subject to good behavior. Finally, Hamilton strongly advocated the abolition of slavery. Although the U.S. Constitution which the convention eventually produced was less robust than Hamilton had proposed, and the tenures of those exercising power were shorter than he desired, he was active in the successful campaign for its ratification in New York. He made the largest single contribution to the authorship of the Federalist Papers, which were extremely influential in that state and others during the debates over ratification, and are still often cited. In 1788, Hamilton served another term in what proved to be the last time the Continental Congress met under the Articles of Confederation.

Secretary of the Treasury

On the advice of Robert Morris, with whom he had discussed economics as an aide-de-camp during the American Revolution, President George Washington appointed Hamilton as the first Secretary of the Treasury when the first Congress passed an act establishing the Treasury Department. Hamilton served in that post from September 11, 1789, until January 31, 1795. It is for his tenure as Treasury secretary that Hamilton is considered one of America's greatest early statesmen. Hamilton's term was marked by innovation, planning and masterful reports. In office for barely a month, he proposed the creation of a seagoing branch of the military to discourage smuggling and enhance tax collections. The following summer, Congress authorized a Revenue Marine force of ten cutters, the precursor to the United States Coast Guard. He also played a crucial role in creating the United States Navy (the Naval Act of 1794). Hamilton's perceptive and creative mind, coupled with a driving ambition to set his ideas in motion, resulted in many proposals to Congress. His proposals included a plan for import duties and excise taxes for raising revenue, funding the Revolutionary War debt, and suggestions on naval laws. He also developed plans for a congressional charter for the First Bank of the United States. In 1790 Hamilton put forth a plan to deal with the immense national debt (which consisted of foreign, domestic and state debts). He proposed to pay off all foreign debt to help restore national credit, which would then enable the nation to issue bonds to pay off the domestic debt. He reasoned that this would help ensure that the "aristocracy of wealth and talent" had a stake in the success of the new government. His plan was for the Federal government to assume the state debts, which would stabilize the country. This would work because, if creditors wanted the individual states to thrive to be able to pay them, the Union could crumble, but if these same creditors now needed the Federal government, and subsequently the country, to thrive then the country would be supported. Hamilton also asked for a whiskey tax and a high import tax (also known as a tariff) to help pay for the debt. Congress gave him the whiskey tax but not the import tax, which was the only part of the plan Hamilton was unable to secure. Finally, Hamilton asked for the creation of a national bank to help the government fulfill its financial obligations and create some income due to interest on loans. Hamilton's financial plan is significant not only for its attempt (mostly successful) to restore the nation's credit and deal with its financial difficulties, but also because it resulted in the first national political parties. Hamilton, contrary to popular belief, did not believe in perpetual debt. He thought it was a weakness that should be avoided except under exceptional circumstances. He had set up a sinking fund that would have paid off all government debt, and wrote numerous articles denouncing perpetual government debt. PAH, vol. 6, pp. 98-106; Report on Public Debt, January 1790; and PAH, vol. 12, p. 570; Fact No. II National Gazette, Philadelphia, October 16, 1792. He published the [http://www.wwnorton.com/college/history/archive/resources/documents/ch08_02.htm Report on the Public Credit] in January 1790. It was a milestone in American financial history, marking the end of an era of slipshod finance and debt repudiation which had virtually ruined American credit. The secret of British economic superiority and stable government, Hamilton argued, was its successful handling of debt. People trusted that government and the will come to trust the American government. Republicans James Madison and Thomas Jefferson strongly opposed all of Hamilton's financial plans, arguing that a bank was unconstitutional, that the original debt holders often sold their certificates and the new owners --who mostly lived in the North--were not really worthy enough. Hamilton argued that the rich and powerful men of every state, who held the state debt certificates, would give their loyalty to the national government, and without that loyalty the new nation would risk not having enough credit it might need in a future war. After six months of rancorous debate, Hamilton, Jefferson and Madison met and worked out [http://www.gwu.edu/~ffcp/exhibit/p14/ The Compromise of 1790]. The national capital would move from New York City to Philadelphia for ten years, and then permanently to the South, and both the fundings of the Confederation debt and the assumption of the state debts would pass Congress. Furthermore the Northern anti-slavery forces would allow the removal of the capital to a slave state. Strong opposition to taxing liquor erupted into the Whiskey Rebellion in Western Pennsylvania and Virginia in 1794. Hamilton felt compliance with the laws was important, so he accompanied President Washington, General "Light Horse Harry" Lee and Federal troops to help put down the insurrection, virtually without bloodshed.

Hamilton as an industrialist

"Light Horse Harry" Lee. Hamilton envisioned the use of the falls to power a new city based on industry.]] Hamilton was among the first to recognize the larger transformations of industry and capitalism of his era—in particular the trend toward larger-scale manufacturing financed through credit. In 1778 he visited the Great Falls of the Passaic River in northern New Jersey and saw that the falls could one day be harnessed to provide power for a manufacturing center on the site. As Secretary of the Treasury, he put this plan into motion, helping to found the Society for the Establishment of Useful Manufactures, a private corporation that would use the power of the falls to operate mills. Although the company did not succeed in its original purpose, it leased the land around the falls to other mill ventures and continued to operate for over a century and a half. The city which grew on the spot of Hamilton's vision, Paterson, New Jersey, became one of the most important manufacturing centers for cotton, steel, and silk, until its decline after World War II.

Out of the Cabinet

Main article: Maria Reynolds Affair In 1794, Hamilton became intimately involved in an affair with Maria Reynolds that badly damaged his reputation and prevented him from rising further in politics. Reynolds's husband blackmailed Hamilton for money, though he was content to permit sexual liaisons between Hamilton and his wife. When James Reynolds was arrested for counterfeiting, he contacted several prominent Jeffersonian Republicans, most notably James Monroe. When they visited Hamilton with their suspicions of malfeasance, he insisted he was innocent of any misconduct in public office, while admitting to an affair with Maria Reynolds. Monroe promised to keep details from public knowledge, but Thomas Jefferson had no such compunctions. When rumors began spreading, Hamilton was forced to publish a confession of his affair, which shocked his family and supporters. A duel with Monroe over his supposed breach of confidentiality was averted by then-Senator Aaron Burr. Ironically, Burr would later represent Maria Reynolds in her divorce lawsuit, leading some to suspect he set Hamilton up. However, Hamilton's relationship with Burr had long been cordial during their years together as prominent New York trial lawyers. Hamilton's resignation as Secretary of the Treasury in 1795 did not remove him from public life. With the resumption of his law practice, he remained close to Washington as an adviser and friend. Hamilton influenced Washington in the composition of his Farewell Address, and Washington often consulted with him, as did members of his Cabinet. Relations between Hamilton and Washington's successor, John Adams, however, were frequently strained. Adams resented Hamilton's influence with Washington, and considered him overambitious and scandalous in his private life; Hamilton compared Adams unfavorably with Washington, and thought him erratic and fussy. During the Quasi-War with France of 1798, and with Washington's strong endorsement, Adams very reluctantly appointed Hamilton a major general of the army. Adams had also held it right to retain Washington's cabinet, except for cause; he found, in 1800, that they were answering to Hamilton, rather than himself, and fired several of them. Hamilton also wrote a pamphlet which was highly critical of Adams (although it closed with a tepid endorsement) which badly hurt Adams's 1800 reelection campaign and split the Federalist Party, contributing to the victory of the Jeffersonian Republicans, led by Jefferson, in the election of 1800. Neither Adams, Jefferson or Burr (Jefferson's putative running mate) gained a majority in the Electoral College. With the United States House of Representatives split and Burr seeking Federalist votes, Hamilton reluctantly threw his weight behind Jefferson, causing one Federalist congressman to abstain from voting after 36 tied ballots. This ensured that Jefferson was elected President rather than Burr. Even though Hamilton did not like Jefferson and disagreed with him on many issues, he was quoted as saying, "At least Jefferson was honest." Burr, who became Vice President of the United States under the law at the time, knew he would not be asked to run again with Jefferson and sought the New York governorship in 1804. He ran first as a Federalist, then as an independent, but was badly defeated.

Duel with Aaron Burr

1804.]] Soon after the election, a newspaper referred to a "despicable opinion" that a Dr. Charles D. Cooper attributed to Hamilton about Burr. This probably resulted from comments Hamilton made in private, sarcastically questioning Burr's integrity. Sensing a chance to regain political honor, Burr demanded an apology. Hamilton refused on the grounds that he could not recall the instance the newspaper mentioned. After an exchange of testy letters, and despite the attempts of mutual friends to avert a confrontation, a duel was nevertheless scheduled for July 11, 1804 on a rocky ledge in Weehawken, New Jersey. At dawn, the duel began, and Vice President Aaron Burr shot Hamilton in his abdomen, above his right hip. Burr's shot ricocheted off Hamilton's rib and caused considerable damage to his internal organs. Hamilton's shot was fired into the air away from his opponent. A letter that he wrote the night before the duel states, "I have resolved, if our interview is conducted in the usual manner, and it pleases God to give me the opportunity, to reserve and throw away my first fire, and I have thoughts even of reserving my second fire." The circumstances of the duel, and Hamilton's actual intentions, are still disputed; the guns were Hamilton's, they have survived, and one of them has a hair-trigger setting. After considerable suffering, Hamilton died the next day and was buried in the Trinity Churchyard Cemetery in Manhattan (Hamilton was nominally Episcopalian). Gouverneur Morris, a political ally of Hamilton's, gave the eulogy at his funeral and secretly established a fund to support his widow and children. Burr fled New York after being charged with murder, his political career in ruins. Years later, he returned to New York City to practice law and was tried and acquitted for his role in the duel. He died in 1836 in Staten Island, New York, having never apologized to Hamilton's family or shown any remorse for ending Hamilton's life. Hamilton's wife Elizabeth (known as Eliza) and he had eight children. He referred to her as "best of wives and best of women." Despite the Reynolds affair, Alexander and Eliza were very close, and as a widow she always strove to guard his reputation and enhance his standing in American history. She died in 1854, after 50 years of widowhood.

Hamilton and modern politics

1854]Arguably, Hamilton set the path for American economic and military might. His most important contribution may have been establishing the supremacy of the executive branch of American government over the legislative and judicial branches. At the moment of founding, it was not clear whether the executive should wield most of the power, especially when it came to the creation of policy, which was supposed to be a legislative task. From the start, Hamilton set a precedent as a Cabinet member by dreaming up federal programs, writing them in the form of reports, pushing for their approval by appearing in person to argue them on the floor of Congress, and then implementing them. Hamilton did this brilliantly and forcefully, setting a high standard for administrative competence. Another of Hamilton's legacies was his strongly pro-federal interpretation of the U.S. Constitution. Though the Constitution was drafted in a way that was somewhat ambiguous as to the balance of power between Federal and state governments, Hamilton consistently took the side of greater Federal power at the expense of states. Thus, as Secretary of the Treasury, he established, against the intense opposition of Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson, the country's first national bank. Hamilton justified the creation of this bank, and other robust Federal powers, on Congress's constitutional powers to issue currency, to regulate interstate commerce, and anything else that would be "necessary and proper." Jefferson, on the other hand, took a stricter view of the Constitution: parsing the text carefully, he found no specific authorization for a national bank. This controversy was eventually settled by the Supreme Court of the United States in McCulloch v. Maryland, which in essence adopted Hamilton's view, granting the federal government broad freedom to select the best means to execute its constitutionally enumerated powers, specifically the doctrine of implied powers. Hamilton’s portrait began to appear during the Civil War on the $2, $5, $10, and $50 notes, which was symbolic of his ideological opposition to the secessionist ideas of the Confederacy. His face continues to grace the front of the ten dollar bill, but after the death of Ronald Reagan, some suggested replacing Hamilton with Reagan. Hamilton also appears on the $500 Series EE Savings Bond.

Writings

- Federalist Papers under the shared pseudonym "Publius" by Alexander Hamilton (c. 52 articles), James Madison (28 articles) and John Jay (five articles)
- Hamilton: Writings by Alexander Hamilton (2001, ISBN 1931082049)

Hamilton College

Alexander Hamilton served as one of the first trustees of the Hamilton-Oneida Academy when Samuel Kirkland opened the missionary school in 1793. When the academy received a college charter in 1812 the school was formally named Hamilton College. There is a prominent statue of Alexander Hamilton in front of the school's chapel (commonly referred to as the "Al-Ham" statue) and the Burke Library has an extensive collection of Hamilton's personal documents. Additionally, the college is in possesion of a number of Hamilton's personal artifacts which are periodically exhibited as a part of the college collection.

Scholarly Secondary Sources

- Brookhiser, Richard. Alexander Hamilton, American. Free Press, 1999 (ISBN 0684839199).
- Chernow, Ron. Alexander Hamilton. Penguin Books, (2004) (ISBN 1594200092), unusually well written.
- Elkins, Stanley M. and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism. (1994), by far the leading scholarly history of the 1790s.
- Ellis, Joseph J. Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation (2002), powerful narrative by leading scholar; won Pulitzer Prize.
- Flexner, James Thomas. The Young Hamilton: A Biography. Fordham University Press, (1997) (ISBN 0823217906).
- Fleming, Thomas. Duel: Alexander Hamilton, Aaron Burr, and the Future of America. Basic Books, 2000 (ISBN 0465017371).
- Knott, Stephen F. Alexander Hamilton and the Persistence of Myth. University Press of Kansas, (2002) (ISBN 0700611576).
- [Lodge, Henry Cabot]. George Washington (vol 2, 1899 covers 1783-99) [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12653 online at Project Gutenberg] old but generally accurate; Lodge greatly admired AH.
- McDonald, Forrest. Alexander Hamilton: A Biography. W. W. Norton & Company, (1982), (ISBN 039330048X), intellectual history focused on AH's republicanism. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101665868 Online at Questia]
- Miller, John C. Alexander Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox (1959), full-length scholarly biography; [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=97872361 online at Questia]
- Mitchell, Broadus. Alexander Hamilton (2 vols., New York: The Macmillan Company, 1957-62), the best scholarly biography. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=33716230 vol 1 online Questia]
- Nettels, Curtis P. The Emergence of a National Economy, 1775-1815 (1962). The standard economic history.
- Randall, Willard Sterne. Alexander Hamilton: A Life. HarperCollins, (2003) (ISBN 0060195495). Popular.
- Rossiter, Clinton. Alexander Hamilton and the Constitution (1964), a conservative appraisal.
- Sharp, James. American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis. (1995) scholarly synthesis.
- Stourzh, Gerald. Alexander Hamilton and the Idea of Republican Government (1970), intellectual history.
- White, Leonard D. The Federalists (1949), the best coverage of how the Treasury and other departments were created and operated.

Primary Sources

- Hamilton, Alexander. Alexander Hamilton: Writings (2001), excellent [http://www.loa.org/volume.jsp?RequestID=175 Library of America edition], over 1000 pages.
- Syrett, Harold C. ed. The Papers of Alexander Hamilton (27 vol, Columbia University Press, 1961-87), the definitive scholarly edition.
- Cooke, Jacob E. ed., Alexander Hamilton: A Profile (1967), short excerpts from AH and his critics.
- Cunningham, Noble E. Jefferson vs. Hamilton: Confrontations that Shaped a Nation (2000), useful short collection of primary sources with commentary by a leading scholar.
- Morris, Richard. ed. Alexander Hamilton and the Founding of the Nation (1957), long excerpts from AH.
- [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=58312678 Selected Writings and Speeches of Alexander Hamilton. 1985 online at Questia]

External links

- [http://xroads.virginia.edu/~CAP/ham/hamilton.html The Rise and Fall of Alexander Hamilton by Ian Finseth] [Alexander Hamilton]
- [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=H000101 Hamilton's Congressional biography]
- [http://www.alexanderhamiltonexhibition.org The New York Historical Society's Alexander Hamilton Exhibit]
- [http://web.archive.org/web/20001110000000/www.ios.com/~alstone/forthebk.htm Alexander Hamilton: Debate over a National Bank (Feb 23 1791)]
- [http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABQ7578-0086-54 Life and Times of Alexander Hamilton by Samuel M. Smucker] a nineteenth century prose poem
- [http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABK2934-0016-97 Alexander Hamilton by C.C. Hazewell]: a 19-th century panegyric.
- [http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABQ7578-0123-7 Alexander Hamilton] by Henry Cabot Lodge: analysis by politician/PhD who edited AH's Works
- [http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/GUI_HAN/HAMILTON_ALEXANDER_1757_1804_.html Jrank Alexander Hamilton] by Encyclopedia Britannica in 1911 Hamilton, Alexander Hamilton, Alexander Hamilton, Alexander Hamilton, Alexander Hamilton, Alexander Hamilton, Alexander Hamilton, Alexander Hamilton, Alexander Hamilton, Alexander Hamilton, Alexander Hamilton, Alexander Hamilton, Alexander Hamilton, Alexander Hamilton, Alexander Hamilton, Alexander Hamilton, Alexander Category:Saint Kitts and Nevis people ja:アレクサンダー・ハミルトン

1792

1792 was a leap year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 25 - The London Corresponding Society is founded by Carlton Schulman.
- February 20 - The Postal Service Act, establishing the United States Post Office Department, is signed by President George Washington.
- March 16 - King of Sweden Gustav III Shot in the back by Jacob Johan Anckarström at a midnight masquerade at the Royal Opera in Stockholm, on March 16, he expired on March 29 succeeded by Gustav IV Adolf.
- April 2 - The Coinage Act is passed establishing the United States Mint.
- April 5 - United States President George Washington vetos a bill designed to apportion representatives among U.S. states. This is the first time the presidential veto has been used in the United States.
- April 20 - France declares war against the Habsburgs
- April 21 - Tiradentes, prime figure in the Inconfidência Mineira plot, is executed in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
- April 24 - First experimental use of the guillotine in France
- April 25 - Highwayman Nicolas J. Pelletier becomes the first person executed by guillotine.
- May 11 - Captain Robert Gray becomes the first white man to discover the Columbia River.
- May 17 - Buttonwood Agreement is signed, beginnings of New York Stock Exchange
- May 21 - Old lava dome collapses in Kyushu, Japan when Mount Unzen volcano erupts - resulting avalanche and tsunami kills about 14300
- June 1 - Kentucky is admitted as the 15th U.S. state and as one of its first orders of business ratifies all twelve articles of the Bill of Rights, including one that is technically still pending for consideration.
- June 4 - Captain George Vancouver claims Puget Sound for Great Britain.
- August 10 - French Revolution: Storming of the Tuileries Palace. Louis XVI of France is arrested and taken into custody.
- September 2 - During what became known as the September Massacres of the French Revolution, rampaging mobs slaughtered three Roman Catholic Church bishops and more than two hundred priests.
- September 11 - Six men steal some of the former French Crown jewels from a warehouse the revolutionary government uses to store them.
- September 20 - Battle of Valmy - French revolutionary army defeats Prussians under Duke of Brunswick after 7-hour artillery duel.
- September 21 - French convention abolishes the monarchy and establishes the First Republic.
- September 22 - Beginning of the Era of the historical French Republican Calendar.
- October 12 - First celebration of Columbus Day in the USA held in New York; 300 years after.
- October 13 - Foundation of Washington, DC. The cornerstone of the United States Executive Mansion, known as the White House since 1818, is laid.
- October 29 - Mt. Hood (Oregon) is named after the British naval officer Alexander Arthur Hood by Lt. William E. Broughton who spotted the mountain near the mouth of the Willamette River.
- December 26 - Trial of Louis XVI of France begins.

Without dates

- Dominique-Jean Larrey, chief surgeon of the Grand Armee of France, created the first ambulance wagons specifically designed as ambulances.
- French revolution, culminate year, Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle composes La Marseillaise also known as "Marche pour les armées du Rhin".
- Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor, last emperor, takes office.
- Treaty of Jassy ends Russian war with Ottoman Empire over Crimea.
- Russia invades Poland: War in defence of the constitution.
- King John VI takes over from his insane mother in Portugal.
- George Washington is re-elected as president of the United States.
- Tipu Sultan invades Kerala in India, but is repulsed.
- George Vancouver explores Puget Sound, becomes first European to see Mount Rainier.
- Franz Xaver, Baron Von Zach, an astronomer, publishes "The Tables of the Sun", an essential early work for navigation.
- Claude Chappe successfully demonstrates the first semaphore line, between Paris and Lille.
- William Murdoch begins experimenting with gas lighting.
- George Anschutz constructs first blast furnace in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
- Thomas Holcroft produces the play Road to Ruin in London.
- Barthelemy Catherine Joubert, later general, becomes sub-lieutenant.
- Johann Georg Albrechtberger becomes Kapellmeister in Vienna.
- State Street Corporation is founded.

Ongoing events

- French Revolution (1789-1799)
- French Revolutionary Wars (1792-1802)

Births

- January 12 - Johann Arfvedson, Swedish chemist (d. 1841)
- February 10 - Captain Frederick Marryat, British author (d. 1848)
- February 17 - Karl Ernst von Baer, German naturalist (d. 1876)
- February 29 - Gioacchino Rossini, Italian composer (d. 1868)
- March 3 - Johann Karl Ludwig Gieseler, German church historian (d. 1854)s
- March 7 - John Herschel, English mathematician and astronomer (d. 1871)
- April 1 - Karl Gottlob Zumpt, German scholar (d. 1894)
- April 23 - John Thomas Romney Robinson, Irish astronomer and physicist (d. 1882)
- April 25 - John Keble, British poet (d. 1866)
- May 13 - Pope Pius IX (d. 1878)
- May 15 - James Mayer Rothschild, German-born banker (d. 1868)
- May 17 - Anne Isabella Milbanke, English wife of George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron
- May 21 - Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis, French engineer and scientist (d. 1843)
- June 16 - John Linnell, British painter (d. 1882)
- July 10 - George M. Dallas, U.S. Senator and Vice President of the United States (d. 1864)
- June 21 - Ferdinand Christian Baur, German theologian (d. 1860)
- August 4 - Percy Bysshe Shelley, British poet (d. 1822)
- August 13 - Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen, queen of William IV of the United Kingdom (d. 1849)
- August 18 - Lord John Russell, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1878)
- September 19 - William Backhouse Astor, Sr., American business tycoon (d. 1875)
- September 26 - William Hobson, first Governor of New Zealand (d. 1842)
- November 11 - Mary Anne Evans, wife of Benjamin Disraeli (d. 1872)
- November 28 - Victor Cousin, French philosopher (d. 1867)
- December 1 - Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky, Russian mathematician (d. 1856)
- December 6 - William II of the Netherlands (d. 1849)
- Matteo Carcassi, Italian musician and composer (d. 1853)
- William Henry Smith, British businessman (d. 1865)

Deaths

- February 23 - Sir Joshua Reynolds, British painter (b. 1723)
- March 1 - Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1747)
- March 3 - Robert Adam, British architect (b. 1728)
- March 10 - John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute, Prime Minister of Great Britain (b. 1713)
- March 29 - King Gustav III of Sweden (assassinated) (b. 1746)
- April 3 - George Pocock, British admiral (b. 1706)
- April 4 - James Sykes, American politician (b. 1725)
- April 3 - John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, English statesman (b. 1718)
- April 14 - Maximilian Hell, Slovakian astronomer (b. 1720)
- April 23 - Karl Friedrich Bahrdt, German theologian and adventurer (b. 1841)
- April 30 - John Montagu, Earl of Sandwich (b. 1718)
- May 10 - John Stevens, American delegate to the Continental Congress
- May 12 - Charles Simon Favart, French dramatist (b. 1710)
- May 24 - George Brydges Rodney, 1st Baron Rodney, British naval officer (b. 1718)
- June 4 - John Burgoyne, British general (b. 1723)
- July 3 - Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick (b. 1735)
- July 18 - John Paul Jones, American naval captain (b. 1747)
- July 29 - René Nicolas Charles Augustin de Maupeou, Chancellor of France (b. 1714)
- August 4 - John Burgoyne, British general (b. 1723)
- August 25 - Jacques Cazotte, French writer (b. 1719)
- September 3 - Princesse de Lamballe, French friend of Marie Antoinette (murdered)
- September 8 - Charles d'Abancourt, French statesman (b. 1758)
- September 18 - August Gottlieb Spangenberg, German religious leader (b. 1704)
- September 25 - Adam Gottlob Moltke, Danish statesman (b. 1710)
- October 7 - George Mason, American patriot (b. 1725)
- October 22 - Guillaume Le Gentil, French astronomer (b. 1725)
- October 28 - Paul Möhring, German physician and scientist (b. 1710)
- October 28 - John Smeaton, English civil engineer (b. 1724)
- December 15 - Joseph Martin Kraus, Swedish composer (b. 1756)
- Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab, Arabic preacher (b. 1703) Category:1792 ko:1792년 ms:1792 simple:1792 th:พ.ศ. 2335

1755

1755 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 25 - Moscow University established.
- February 20 - General Braddock lands in Virginia to take command of the English forces against the French in North America
- April 15 - A Dictionary of the English Language is published by Samuel Johnson; he had begun the work in 1746
- July 9 - French and Indian War: Braddock Expedition - British troops and colonial militiamen are ambushed and suffer a devastating defeat inflicted by French and Indian forces. During the battle, British General Edward Braddock is mortally wounded. Colonel George Washington survives.
- November 1 - 1755 Lisbon earthquake: In Portugal, Lisbon is destroyed by a massive earthquake and tsunami, killing 60,000 - 90,000 people.
- November 18 - An earthquake occurs in the vicinity of Cape Ann, Massachusetts, causing extensive damage.
- December 2 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire.
- Great Expulsion of the Acadians.
- The sultanate of Mataram on Java is divided in two, creating the sultanates of Yogyakarta and Surakarta. the acadians were forced to leave their home because of the treaty of uresty between the french and the british
- Wolsey the clothes manufacturer was established in Leicester; the business celebrated its 250th anniversary in 2005.

Ongoing events

- French and Indian War (1754-1763)

Births

- February 11 - Albert Christoph Dies, German composer (d. 1822)
- April 16 - Elisabeth Vigee-Lebrun, French painter (d. 1842)
- June 30 - Paul François Jean Nicolas Barras, French politician (d. 1829)
- September 9 - Benjamin Bourne, American politician (d. 1808)
- November 2 - Marie Antoinette, Queen of France (d. 1793)
- November 12 - Gerhard von Scharnhorst, Prussian general (d. 1813)
- November 17 - Louis XVIII of France (d. 1824)
- Charles Manners-Sutton, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1828)

Deaths

- February 10 - Montesquieu, French writer (b. 1689)
- February 11 - Francesco Scipione, marchese di Maffei, Italian archaeologist (b. 1675)
- March 2 - Louis de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon, French writer (b. 1675)
- April 6 - Richard Rawlinson, English minister and antiquarian (b. 1690)
- June 26 - Iyasus II, Emperor of Ethiopia
- July 13 - Edward Braddock, British general
- August 13 - Francesco Durante, Italian composer (b. 1684)
- September 8 - Ephraim Williams, American philanthropist (b. 1715)
- September 9 - Johann Lorenz von Mosheim, German historian (b. 1694)
- October 22 - Elisha Williams, American rector of Yale College (b. 1694)
- November 25 - Johann Georg Pisendel, German musician (b. 1687)
- December 1 - Maurice Greene, English composer (b. 1696) Category:1755 ko:1755년 ms:1755

July 12

July 12 is the 193rd day (194th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 172 days remaining.

Events

- 1543 - King Henry VIII of England married his sixth and last wife, Catherine Parr at Hampton Court Palace.
- 1573 - Spanish forces under the Duke of Alva capture Haarlem after a seven month siege.
- 1690 - Williamite war in Ireland: Battle of the Boyne (Gregorian calendar) - The army of William III of England defeats that of the deposed King James VII of Scotland and II of England.
- 1691 - Williamite war in Ireland: Battle of Aughrim (Julian calendar) - The decisive victory of William's forces in Ireland.
- 1759 - Seven Years' War - French and Indian War: British cannon start firing on French at Quebec City, from Lévis, Quebec.
- 1806 - Sixteen German imperial states left the Holy Roman Empire and formed the Confederation of the Rhine.
- 1812 - War of 1812: The United States invades Canada at Windsor, Ontario.
- 1862 - Medal of Honor authorized by the United States Congress.
- 1892 - A hidden lake bursts out of a glacier on the side of Mont Blanc, flooding the valley below and killing around 200 villagers and holidaymakers in [http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Gervais-les-Bains Saint Gervais].
- 1932 - Lambeth Bridge, London, opened by King George V of the United Kingdom
- Hedley Verity establishes a first-class record by taking all ten wickets for only ten runs against Nottinghamshire on a pitch affected by a storm.
- 1933 - Congress passes the first federal minimum wage law in the United States: 33 cents per hour.
- 1943 - World War II: Battle of Kursk - German and Soviet forces engage in largest tank engagement of all time.
- 1950 - René Pleven becomes Prime Minister of France.
- 1960 - Orlyonok, the main Young Pioneer camp of the Russian SFSR, is founded.
- 1967 - Four days of race riots begin in Newark, New Jersey that will claim the lives of 27 people.
- 1973 - The 1973 National Archives Fire destroys the entire 6th floor of the National Personnel Records Center.
- 1975 - São Tomé and Príncipe declare independence.
- 1979 - The island nation of Kiribati declares independence.
- 1993 - A magnitude 7.8 earthquake off the shore of Hokkaido, Japan launches a devastating tsunami, killing 202 on the small island of Okushiri.
- 1998 - KDE 1.0 released.
- 2002 - Gay rights: The Superior Court of Ontario orders Ontario to recognize same-sex marriages.
- 2004 - Earthquake in Posočje,Slovenia, 2 dead, 4.9 on the Richter scale.
- Pedro Santana Lopes is officially appointed Prime Minister of Portugal.
- 2005 - Prince Albert II is enthroned as ruler of the Principality of Monaco.

Births

100 BC to 1899

- 100 BC - Gaius Julius Caesar, Roman soldier and politician (d. 44 BC)
- AD 1394 - Ashikaga Yoshinori, Japanese shogun (d. 1441)
- 1468 - Juan del Encina, Spanish poet and composer
- 1596 - Tsar Michael I of Russia (d. 1645)
- 1674 - Abigail Williams, American accuser in the Salem witch trials (d. 1765)
- 1675 - Evaristo Abaco, Italian composer (d. 1742)
- 1730 - Josiah Wedgwood, English potter (d. 1795)
- 1803 - Peter Chanel, French priest and saint (d. 1841)
- 1807 - Thomas Hawksley, English civil engineer (d. 1893)
- 1817 - Henry David Thoreau, American writer and philosopher (d. 1862)
- 1819 - Charles Kingsley, English writer (d. 1875)
- 1824 - Eugène Boudin, French painter (d. 1898)
- 1828 - Nikolai Chernyshevsky, Russian philosopher (d. 1889)
- 1849 - Sir William Osler, Canadian physician and author (d. 1919)
- 1850 - Otto Schoetensack, German anthropologist (d. 1912)
- 1852 - Hipólito Yrigoyen, President of Argentina (d. 1933).
- 1854 - George Eastman, American inventor (d. 1932)
- 1861 - George Washington Carver, American botanist (d. 1943)
- 1863 - Paul Karl Ludwig Drude, German physicist (d. 1906)
- Albert Calmette, French physician (d. 1933)
- 1868 - Stefan George, German poet (d. 1933)
- 1870 - Louis II of Monaco (d. 1949)
- 1876 - Max Jacob, French poet (d. 1944)
- 1880 - Tod Browning, American film director (d. 1962)
- 1884 - Amedeo Modigliani, Italian painter and sculptor (d. 1920)
- 1886 - Jean Hersholt, Danish film director and actor (d. 1956)
- 1892 - Bruno Schulz, Polish writer and painter (d. 1942)
- 1895 - Kirstin Flagstad, Norwegian soprano (d. 1962)
- R. Buckminster Fuller, American architect (d. 1983)
- Oscar Hammerstein II, American lyricist (d. 1960)

1900 to 1999

- 1904 - Pablo Neruda, Chilean poet, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1973)
- 1908 - Milton Berle, American comedian (d. 2002)
- 1909 - Joe DeRita, American actor and comedian (d. 1993)
- 1913 - Willis Lamb, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1917 - Andrew Wyeth, American artist
- 1920 - Pierre Berton, Canadian journalist and writer (d. 2004)
- Beah Richards, American actress (d. 2000)
- 1922 - Mark Hatfield, U.S. Senator from Oregon
- 1925 - Roger B. Smith, American automobile executive
- 1928 - Elias James Corey, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1930 - Gordon Pinsent, Canadian actor, director, and writer
- 1932 - Otis Davis, American runner
- 1933 - Donald E. Westlake, American author
- 1934 - Van Cliburn, American pianist
- 1937 - Bill Cosby, American comedian and actor
- Lionel Jospin, Prime Minister of France
- 1938 - Wieger Mensonides, Dutch swimmer
- 1942 - Billy Smith, Australian rugby player
- 1943 - Christine McVie, American singer, musician, and songwriter (Fleetwood Mac)
- 1947 - Gareth Edwards, Welsh rugby player
- 1948 - Walter Egan, American singer
- Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan, Pakistani musician (d. 1997)
- Richard Simmons, American fitness trainer
- Jay Thomas, American actor
- 1951 - Cheryl Ladd, American actress
- 1956 - Julie Miller, American singer
- Sandi Patty, American singer
- 1962 - Dan Murphy, American guitarist (Soul Asylum)
- 1964 - Gaby Roslin, English television presenter
- 1965 - Robin Wilson, American singer
- 1967 - Richard Herring, English comedian
- 1969 - Lisa Nicole Carson, American actress
- 1971 - Kristi Yamaguchi, American figure skater
- 1972 - Travis Best, American basketball player
- 1973 - Magoo, American rapper
- 1974 - Gregory Helms, American professional wrestler
- Stelios Giannakopoulos, Greek footballer
- 1976 - Anna Friel, British actress
- Tracie Spencer, American singer
- 1977 - Brock Lesnar, American professional wrestler
- 1978 - Michelle Rodriguez, American actress
- 1982 - Antonio Cassano, Italian footballer
- 1984 - Gareth Gates, British singer
- 1988 - Melissa O'Neil, Canadian singer
- 1991 - Erik Per Sullivan, American actor

Deaths

783 to 1899

- 783 - Bertrada, wife of Pippin III (b. 720)
- 1441 - Ashikaga Yoshinori, Japanese shogun (b. 1394)
- 1536 - Erasmus, Dutch writer and philosopher
- 1584 - Steven Borough, English explorer (b. 1525)
- 1664 - Stefano della Bella, Italian printmaker (b. 1610)
- 1682 - Jean Picard, French astronomer (b. 1620)
- 1693 - John Ashby, English admiral
- 1712 - Richard Cromwell, Lord Protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland (b. 1626)
- 1742 - Evaristo Abaco, Italian composer (b. 1675)
- 1749 - Charles de la Boische, Marquis de Beauharnois, Governor of New France
- 1773 - Johann Joachim Quantz, German flutist and composer (b. 1697)
- 1804 - Alexander Hamilton, first United States Secretary of the Treasury (b. 1755)
- 1845 - Henrik Wergeland, Norwegian author (b. 1808)

1900 to 1999

- 1910 - Charles Stewart Rolls, British engineer and aviator (b. 1887)
- 1918 - Dragutin Lerman, Croatian explorer (b. 1864)
- 1926 - Gertrude Bell, English archaeologist, writer, spy, and administrator (b. 1868)
- 1931 - Nathan Söderblom, Swedish archbishop, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1866)
- 1935 - Alfred Dreyfus, French military officer (b. 1859)
- 1949 - Douglas Hyde, first President of Ireland (b. 1860)
- 1962 - Roger Wolfe Kahn, American band leader (b. 1907)
- 1996 - John Chancellor, American television journalist (b. 1927)
- Jonathan Melvoin, American musician and keyboardist (Smashing Pumpkins) (b. 1961)
- 1999 - Bill Owen, British actor (b. 1914)

2000 onwards

- 2003 - Benny Carter, American musician (b. 1907)
- 2004 - Betty Oliphant, co-founder of National Ballet of Canada (b. 1918)

Holidays and observances

1918
- Kiribati - Independence Day
- Mongolia - Naadam Holiday (2nd day)
- Northern Ireland - Battle of the Boyne Day (also known as Orangemen's Day or the Twelfth, see Irish calendar).
- Newfoundland - Orangemen's Day
- São Tomé and Príncipe - Independence Day
- Sunset and sunrise occur along Manhattan's street grid centerline
- The "central pivot irrigation day" of Colorado
- RainMaker Day - Salem, OR ([http://www.salemhistory.net/natural_history/july%20_12.htm Salem Online History]) Serbia - Petrovdan

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/12 BBC: On This Day] ---- July 11 - July 13 - June 12 - August 12 -- listing of all days ko:7월 12일 ms:12 Julai ja:7月12日 simple:July 12 th:12 กรกฎาคม

Politics of the United States

The federal government of the United States was established by the United States Constitution. United States politics is dominated by the two major parties, the Republican Party and the Democratic Party. There are several other groups or parties of minor political significance.

Federal, state and local governments

The federal entity created by the Constitution is the dominant feature of the American governmental system. However, every person outside the capital is subject to at least three governing bodies: the federal government, a state, and a county (Note: county government has been abolished in some places, see New England and Town Meeting, the town/city fulfills this level of government). Within an incorporated entity, such as a city, they are also subject to the local government and possibly a district. Each level has its own political system (subject to constraints at higher levels). This multiplicity of jurisdictions reflects the country's history. The federal government was created by former colonies that had been established separately and had governed themselves independently of the others. Within these colonies were counties and towns with varying levels of development and therefore different administrative needs. Rather than replacing the states' legal systems with a unitary government, the Constitutional Convention chose to keep the states largely self-governing. As the country expanded, it admitted new states modeled on the existing ones.

State government

Before their independence, colonies governed themselves separately under the authority of the British Crown. In the early years of the republic, prior to the adoption of the Constitution, each state was virtually an autonomous unit. The delegates to the Constitutional Convention sought a stronger, more viable federal union, but they could not ignore state traditions, nor the interests of state politicians. In general, matters that lie entirely within state borders are the exclusive concern of state governments. These include internal communications; regulations relating to property, industry, business, and public utilities; the state criminal code; and working conditions within the state. Within this context, the federal government requires that state governments must be republican in form and that they adopt no laws that contradict or violate the federal Constitution or the laws and treaties of the United States. There are, of course, many areas of overlap between state and federal jurisdictions. Particularly in recent years, the federal government has assumed ever broadening responsibility in such matters as health, education, welfare, transportation, and housing and urban development. But where the federal government exercises such responsibility in the states, programs are usually adopted on the basis of cooperation between the two levels of government, rather than as an imposition from above. Like the national government, state governments have three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial; these are roughly equivalent in function and scope to their national counterparts. The chief executive of a state is the governor, elected by popular vote, typically for a four-year term (although in a few states the term is two years). Except for Nebraska, which has one legislative body, all states have a bicameral legislature, with the upper house usually called the Senate and the lower house called the House of Representatives, the House of Delegates, or the General Assembly. To confuse matters further, some states refer to the entire state legislature as the "General Assembly", with two houses therein. In most states, senators serve four-year terms, and members of the lower house serve two-year terms. The constitutions of the various states differ in some details but generally follow a pattern similar to that of the federal Constitution, including a statement of the rights of the people and a plan for organizing the government. On such matters as the operation of businesses, banks, public utilities, and charitable institutions, state constitutions are often more detailed and explicit than the federal one. Each state constitution, however, provides that the final authority belongs to the people, and sets certain standards and principles as the foundation of government.

City government

Once predominantly rural, the United States is today a highly urbanized country, and about 80 percent of its citizens now live in towns, large cities, or suburbs of cities. This statistic makes city governments critically important in the overall pattern of American government. To a greater extent than on the federal or state level, the city directly serves the needs of the people, providing everything from police and fire protection to sanitary codes, health regulations, education, public transportation, and housing. The business of running America's major cities is enormously complex. In terms of population alone, New York City is larger than 41 of the 50 states. It is often said that, next to the presidency, the most difficult executive position in the country is that of mayor of New York. City governments are chartered by states, and their charters detail the objectives and powers of the municipal government. But in many respects the cities function independently of the states. For most big cities, however, cooperation with both state and federal organizations is essential to meeting the needs of their residents. Types of city governments vary widely across the nation. However, almost all have some kind of central council, elected by the voters, and an executive officer, assisted by various department heads, to manage the city's affairs. There are three general types of city government: the mayor-council, the commission, and the council-manager. These are the pure forms; many cities have developed a combination of two or three of them. Mayor-Council. This is the oldest form of city government in the United States and, until the beginning of the 20th century, was used by nearly all American cities. Its structure is similar to that of the state and national governments, with an elected mayor as chief of the executive branch and an elected council that represents the various neighborhoods forming the legislative branch. The mayor appoints heads of city departments and other officials, sometimes with the approval of the council. He or she has the power of veto over ordinances — the laws of the city — and frequently is responsible for preparing the city's budget. The council passes city ordinances, sets the tax rate on property, and apportions money among the various city departments. As cities have grown, council seats have usually come to represent more than a single neighborhood. The Commission. This combines both the legislative and executive functions in one group of officials, usually three or more in number, elected city-wide. Each commissioner supervises the work of one or more city departments. One is named chairperson of the body and is often called the mayor, although his or her power is equivalent to that of the other commissioners. Council-Manager. The city manager is a response to the increasing complexity of urban problems, which require management expertise not often possessed by elected public officials. The answer has been to entrust most of the executive powers, including law enforcement and provision of services, to a highly trained and experienced professional city manager. The city manager plan has been adopted by a growing number of cities. Under this plan, a small, elected council makes the city ordinances and sets policy, but hires a paid administrator, also called a city manager, to carry out its decisions. The manager draws up the city budget and supervises most of the departments. Usually, there is no set term; the manager serves as long as the council is satisfied with his or her work.

County government

The county is a subdivision of the state, sometimes — but not always — containing two or more townships and several villages. New York City is so large that it is divided into five separate boroughs, each a county in its own right. On the other hand, Arlington County, Virginia, just across the Potomac River from Washington, D.C., is both an urbanized and suburban area, governed by a unitary county administration. What has happened, in these cases, is known as consolidated city-county government, which is also used by several other larger U.S. cities. In most U.S. counties, one town or city is designated as the county seat, and this is where the government offices are located and where the board of commissioners or supervisors meets. In small counties, boards are chosen by the county as a whole; in the larger ones, supervisors represent separate districts or townships. The board levies taxes; borrows and appropriates money; fixes the salaries of county employees; supervises elections; builds and maintains highways and bridges; and administers national, state, and county welfare programs. In some New England states, counties do not have any governmental function and are simply a division of land.

Town and village government

Thousands of municipal jurisdictions are too small to qualify as city governments. These are chartered as towns and villages and deal with such strictly local needs as paving and lighting the streets; ensuring a water supply; providing police and fire protection; establishing local health regulations; arranging for garbage, sewage, and other waste disposal; collecting local taxes to support governmental operations; and, in cooperation with the state and county, directly administering the local school system. Note that in many states the term "town" does not have any specific meaning--it is simply an informal term applied to populated places (both incorporated and unincorporated municipalities). And in some states, the term town is equivalent to how civil townships are used in other states. The government is usually entrusted to an elected board or council, which may be known by a variety of names: town or village council, board of selectmen, board of supervisors, board of commissioners. The board may have a chairperson or president who functions as chief executive officer, or there may be an elected mayor. Governmental employees may include a clerk, treasurer, police and fire officers, and health and welfare officers. One unique aspect of local government, found mostly in the New England region of the United States, is the "town meeting." Once a year — sometimes more often if needed — the registered voters of the town meet in open session to elect officers, debate local issues, and pass laws for operating the government. As a body, they decide on road construction and repair, construction of public buildings and facilities, tax rates, and the town budget. The town meeting, which has existed for more than two centuries, is often cited as the purest form of direct democracy, in which the governmental power is not delegated, but is exercised directly and regularly by all the people.

Other local governments

The federal, state, and local governments covered here by no means include the whole spectrum of American governmental units. The U.S. Bureau of the Census (part of the Commerce Department) has identified no less than 84,955 local governmental units in the United States, including counties, municipalities, townships, school districts, and special districts. Americans have come to rely on their governments to perform a wide variety of tasks which, in the early days of the republic, people did for themselves. In colonial days, there were few police officers or firefighters, even in the large cities; governments provided neither street lights nor street cleaners. To a large extent, people protected their own property and saw to their families' needs. In modern times, meeting these needs is usually seen as the responsibility of the whole community, acting through the agency of one or more levels of government. Even in small towns, the police, fire, welfare, and health department functions are exercised by governments. Hence, the bewildering array of jurisdictions.

Participation

Suffrage is nearly universal for citizens 18 years of age and older. A major remaining exception is the District of Columbia, where residents have no representation whatsoever in the US Senate; only a non-voting "delegate" in the House; and an extremely weak "home rule" city government. Also, US voting rights can be restricted as a result of felony conviction (such laws vary widely by state). The most significant fact about politics in the United States, especially at the national level, is that successful participation requires large amounts of money, especially for television advertising. This money is very difficult to raise by appeals to a mass base, although the Republican Party has had some success, as has Howard Dean with his Internet appeals. Both parties must depend on wealthy donors and organizations - traditionally the Democrats depended on donations from organized labor while the Republicans relied on business donations. Since 1984, however, the Democrats' business donations have surpassed those from labor organizations. This dependency on donors is controversial, and has led to laws limiting spending on political campaigns being enacted; as a complicating factor due to the United States Constitution, opponents of campaign finance laws cite the First Amendment's guarantee of free speech, and challenge campaign finance laws on grounds that they attempt to circumscribe their constitutionally-guaranteed rights. Even when laws are upheld, the complication of compliance with the First Amendment requires careful and cautious drafting of legislation, leading to laws that are still fairly limited in scope, especially in comparison to those of other countries such as the United Kingdom, France or Canada. Some would allege that funding practices commonplace in the United States would likely be considered political corruption elsewhere.

Political culture

Most schools in the United States teach the Declaration of Independence, Constitution, Bill of Rights, and the writings of the Founding Fathers as the definition of the country's governing ideology. Among the core tenets of this ideology are the following:
- The government is answerable to citizens, who may change it through elections.
- The government's power in matters of religion, expression, and law enforcement should be limited to prevent abuse of power.
- The laws should attach no special privilege to any citizen (that is, citizens should be equal before the law).
- Individuals and political parties debate how this ideology applies to particular circumstances, and may disagree openly with any of it. At the time of the United States's founding, the economy was predominantly one of private business, and state governments left welfare issues to private or local initiative. The United States government has largely accepted the system of private enterprise and opposed broad grants of support to citizens, although the experience of the Great Depression challenged both positions. As a result the US tends to be ideologically oriented toward capitalism in contrast with the social democratic cultures in Europe. Prior to World War II the United States pursued a policy of isolationism in foreign affairs by not taking sides in conflicts between foreign powers. The country abandoned this policy when it became a superpower, but the country remains skeptical of internationalism. The ideology of the incumbent President and the President's advisors largely determines the government's attitude in foreign affairs.

Political parties

See also: Republican Party, Democratic Party, Puerto Rico political parties Many of America's Founding Fathers hated the thought of political parties. They were sure quarreling factions would be more interested in contending with each other than in working for the common good. They wanted individual citizens to vote for individual candidates, without the interference of organized groups — but this was not to be. By the 1790s, different views of the new country's proper course had already developed, and those who held these opposing views tried to win support for their cause by banding together. The followers of Alexander Hamilton, the Hamiltonian faction, took up the name "Federalist"; they favored a strong central government that would support the interests of commerce and industry. The followers of Thomas Jefferson, the Jeffersonians and then the "Anti-Federalists," took up the name Democrat-Republicans" (not to be confused with the modern Republican party); they preferred a decentralized agrarian republic in which the federal government had limited power. By 1828, the Federalists had disappeared as an organization, replaced by the Whigs, brought to life in opposition to the election that year of President Andrew Jackson. Jackson's presidency split the Republican party: Jacksonians became the "Democratic-Republicans" and those following the leadership of John Quincy Adams became the "National Republicans." The Democratic-Republicans quickly shortened their name to the Democratic party, and the two-party system, still in existence today, was born. The United States thus has exceptionally old political parties. In the 1850s, the issue of slavery took center stage, with disagreement in particular over the question of whether or not slavery should be permitted in the country's new territories in the West. The Whig Party straddled the issue and sank to its death; it was replaced in 1854 by the Republican Party, whose primary policy was that slavery be excluded from all the territories. Just six years later, this new party captured the presidency when Abraham Lincoln won the election of 1860. By then, parties were well established as the country's dominant political organizations, and party allegiance had become an important part of most people's consciousness. Party loyalty was passed from fathers to sons, and party activities — including spectacular campaign events, complete with uniformed marching groups and torchlight parades — were a part of the social life of many communities. By the 1920s, however, this boisterous folksiness had diminished. Municipal reforms, civil service reform, corrupt practices acts, and presidential primaries to replace the power of politicians at national conventions had all helped to clean up politics — and make it quite a bit less fun. How did the two-party system develop in the United States? America has historically had many minor or third political parties. They tend to serve a means to advocate polices that eventually are adopted by the two major political parties, i.e. the abolishment of slavery, and child labor laws. Some of these third political parties such as the Socialist Party, the Farmer Labor Party and the Populist Party developed an impressive degree of support, although limited electoral success. Most officials in America are elected from single-member districts and win office by beating out their opponents in a system for determining winners called first-past-the-post — the one who gets the pluarity wins, (which is not the same thing as actually getting a majority of votes). While some cities and the state of Illinois did experiment with proportional representation, the United States Congress banned the usage of that alternative voting method for federal legislative elections in 1967. This, too, encourages the two-party system; see Duverger's law. Another critical factor has been ballot access law. Originally voters went to the polls and publicly stated which candidate they supported, later on this developed into a process whereby each political party would create its own ballot and thus the voter would put the party's ballot into the voting box. In the late nineteenth century, states became to adopt the Australian Secret Ballot Method and it eventually became the national standard. The secret ballot method ensured that the privacy of voters would be protected (hence government jobs could no longer be awarded to loyal voters) and each state would be responsible for creating one official ballot. The fact that states legislators were dominated by Democrats and Republicans provided an opportunity to possible discriminatory laws against minor political parties, yet such laws did not start to arise until the first Red Scare that hit America after World War I. State legislators became to enact tough laws that made it harder for minor political parties to run candidates for office by requiring a high number of petition signatures from citizens and decreasing the length of time that such a petition could legally be circulated. The election laws encourages the creation of a duopoly: one party in power, the other out. If those who are "out" band together, they have a better chance of beating thos