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202 BC

202 BC

Centuries: 2nd century BC - 3rd century BC - 4th century BC Decades: 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC Years: 207 BC 206 BC 205 BC 204 BC 203 BC - 202 BC - 201 BC 200 BC 199 BC 198 BC 197 BC ---- Events
- October 19 - In an epic showdown between the two greatest generals of their age, Scipio Africanus Major defeats Hannibal in the Battle of Zama. On Hannibal's advice, Carthage sues for peace, ending the Second Punic War. Carthage is reduced to a client state.
- The Han emperor Liu Bang moves his capital from Luoyang to Chang'an (Xian), Construction of the new capital city Chang'an started. He gives the area of today's Fujian Province to Wuzhu as his kingdom. Wuzhu started construction of his own capital Ye (Fuzhou).
- Construction of Changsha started. Births
- Deaths
- Xiang Yu, rebel against the Qin Dynasty Category:200s BC

Centuries

These pages contain the trends of millennia and centuries. The individual century pages contain lists of decades and years. See history for different organizations of historical events. See calendar and list of calendars for other groupings of years. For earlier time periods, see cosmological timeline, geologic timescale, evolutionary timeline, pleistocene, and logarithmic timeline.
- Paleolithic
- 10th millennium BC | 9th millennium BC | 8th millennium BC
- 7th millennium BC | 6th millennium BC | 5th millennium BC
- 5th millennium | 6th millennium | 7th millennium
- 8th millennium | 9th millennium | 10th millennium
- 11th millennium and beyond
- ja:年表 th:คริสต์ศตวรรษ simple:Centuries

3rd century BC

(2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) ----

Events

- The first two Punic Wars between Carthage and Rome over dominance in western Mediterranean
- Rome conquers Spain
- Gaulish migration to Macedonia, Thrace and Galatia
- 281 BC Antiochus I Soter, on the assassination of his father Seleucus becomes emperor of the Seleucid empire.
- 273 BC to 252 BC Ashoka the Great ruled the Mauryan Empire
- 261 BC Antiochus II Theos, 2nd son, at the death of his father becomes emperor of the Seleucid empire.
- 214 BC Qin Shi Huang Qin Dynasty ordered contruction of the Great Wall of China.
- Indian traders regularly visited Arabia
- Scythians occupy Sogdiana, in modern-day Uzbekistan.
- Han dynasty was founded (202 BC - 8 AD).
- The Pharos of Alexandria is built.

Significant persons

- Mencius, Chinese philosopher and sage (371 - 289 BC).
- Euclid, geometer (c. 365 - 275 BC).
- Ashoka, Mauryan ruler of India 273 BC - 232 BC.
- Archimedes of Syracuse, mathematician, physicist, and engineer (c. 287 - 212 BC).
- The Ptolemaic dynasty rules Egypt
- Ptolemy I Soter (305 BC-282 BC) and his wives Eurydice and
- Ptolemy II Philadelphos (284 BC-246 BC) and his wives Arsinoe I and Arsinoe II Philadelphos.
- Ptolemy III Euergetes I (246 BC-222 BC) and his wife Berenice II.
- Ptolemy IV Philopater (222 BC-204 BC) and his wife Arsinoe III.
- Ptolemy V Epiphanes (204 BC-180 BC) and his wife Cleopatra I.
- Eratosthenes (c. 276 - 194 BC), Greek mathematician, geographer and astronomer.
- Apollonius of Perga, mathematician (c. 262 - 190 BC).
- Qin Shi Huang, Chinese Emperor (259 - 210 BC, reigned 246 - 210 BC).
- Hannibal, military leader of Carthage (247 - 182 BC).
- the "second" Brennus, Gaulish chieftain, invades Macedonia in 279 BC

Inventions, discoveries, introductions

- Eratosthenes accurately calculates diameter of the Earth
- Weiqi well-established in China, and may date back to the 2nd millennium BC
- Stone of Canopus (for Ptolemy III), No. 1, in Rosetta Stone Series of 3 stones. Implements Leap year in Egypt. Leap year not formally recognized until Caesar in 55 B.C.

Decades and years

Category:3rd century BC ko:기원전 3세기 ja:紀元前3世紀

Decades

:For other uses of the term, see decade (disambiguation). This is a list of decades which have articles with more information about them. See also centuries and history. During the 20th Century and continuing today it became popular to look at that century's decades as historical entities in themselves. Particular trends, styles, and attitudes would be associated with and define different decades of the century, and thus the names of the decades themselves have come to be synonymous with them. Some commentators suggest that this phenomenon will not continue into the 21st Century with its decades.

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20th century	1900s	1910s	1920s	1930s	1940s	1950s	1960s	1970s	1980s	1990s
21st century	2000s	2010s	2020s	2030s	2040s	2050s	2060s	2070s	2080s	2090s

ja:10年紀 simple:Decade Category:Decades

220s BC

Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 270s BC 260s BC 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC - 220s BC - 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC Years: 229 BC 228 BC 227 BC 226 BC 225 BC 224 BC 223 BC 222 BC 221 BC 220 BC ----

Events and trends

- Category:220s BC

210s BC

Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 260s BC 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC - 210s BC - 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC Years: 219 BC 218 BC 217 BC 216 BC 215 BC 214 BC 213 BC 212 BC 211 BC 210 BC ----

Events and trends

- The Second Punic War began when Hannibal conquers Saguntum, then leads an army through southern Gaul and across the Alps into Italy. He proceeded to defeat every army Rome sent against him, the Battle of Cannae being his most famous victory. Category:210s BC

200s BC

Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC Years: 209 BC 208 BC 207 BC 206 BC 205 BC 204 BC 203 BC 202 BC 201 BC 200 BC ----

Events and trends

- Han Dynasty founded in China.
- After severe losses, Roman determination kept them fighting in the Second Punic War against Hannibal. As a result, they wore down Carthaginian forces in Spain and Sicily, then launched a series of raids across the Mediterranean Sea that forced Hannibal to withdraw back to northern Africa, where he was at last decisively defeated in the Battle of Zama. Category:200s BC

190s BC

Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC - 190s BC - 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC Years: 199 BC 198 BC 197 BC 196 BC 195 BC 194 BC 193 BC 192 BC 191 BC 190 BC ----

Events and trends

-
- For Ptolemy V of Egypt, the priests erected the "Decree of Memphis (Ptolemy V)", the named Rosetta Stone. Category:190s BC

170s BC

Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC - 170s BC - 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC Years: 179 BC 178 BC 177 BC 176 BC 175 BC 174 BC 173 BC 172 BC 171 BC 170 BC ----

Events and trends

- Category:170s BC

206 BC

Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC Years: 211 BC 210 BC 209 BC 208 BC 207 BC - 206 BC - 205 BC 204 BC 203 BC 202 BC 201 BC ---- Events
- Second Punic War:
- Scipio Africanus Major destroyed the combined Carthaginian army of Mago Barca and Hasdrubal Gisco in the Battle of Ilipa, thus ending Carthaginian hold in Spain.
- Mago evacuates the remaining Carthaginian troops in Spain, and sails for the Balearic Islands.
- Scipio Africanus Major returns to Rome, while his soldiers found the Spanish town Italica.
- Ziying, last ruler of the Qin Dynasty of China surrenders himself to Liu Bang, leader of a popular revolt. This marks the end of the Qin Dynasty. The principality that would later become the Han dynasty is established by Liu.
- Gojoseon fell in Korean peninsula.
- Kingdom Nanyue established itself in Fanyu (Guangzhou, or Canton)
- The Chinese play a kickball game called tsu-chu, the ancestor of modern soccer. Births Deaths Category:200s BC ko:206년

205 BC

Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC Years: 210 BC 209 BC 208 BC 207 BC 206 BC - 205 BC - 204 BC 203 BC 202 BC 201 BC 200 BC ---- Events
- Second Punic War:
- Carthaginians under Mago land in Liguria, capturing Genoa and Savona.
- Scipio Africanus Major is elected consul, and departs to Sicily to prepare the invasion of Africa
- Quintus Pleminius captures Locri in Italy, across the Strait of Messina, Hannibal's attempt to recapture the town was foiled by the appeared of Scipio's army.
- Hannibal erects a bilingual Punic/Greek inscription describing his accomplisments, in the temple of Juno Lacinia near Croton.
- Scipio sent Gaius Laelius to Africa to prepare the way for his later invasion
- Philip V of Macedon negotiates the Peace of Phoenice, ending the First Macedonian War. Births
- Deaths
- Zhang Han, general of the Qin Dynasty Category:200s BC ko:205년

203 BC

Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC Years: 208 BC 207 BC 206 BC 205 BC 204 BC - 203 BC - 202 BC 201 BC 200 BC 199 BC 198 BC ---- Events
- Second Punic War:
- Scipio's surprise night attack destroyed the first Carthaginian army under Hasdrubal Gisco and Syphax
- The Romans under Scipio again defeat the second Carthaginian army of Hasdrubal Gisco and Syphax in the Battle of Bagbrades.
- Syphax is captured and imprisoned at Alba Fucens, Masinissa, ally of Scipio, became sole ruler of Numidia
- Mago was defeated and badly wounded by the Romans in a battle fought in the territory of the Insubres
- Hannibal was recalled to Carthage. Births
- Polybius, Greek historian Deaths
- Mago, brother of Hannibal
- Fabius Maximus Cunctator, Roman general and statesman Category:200s BC ko:203년

201 BC

Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC Years: 206 BC 205 BC 204 BC 203 BC 202 BC - 201 BC - 200 BC 199 BC 198 BC 197 BC 196 BC ---- Events
- Philip V of Macedon is defeated at sea by the Egyptians, Rhodians, and Pergamese in the Battle of Chios.
- In Rome, according to Livy, land was distributed to veterans of the Second Punic War, in the first instance of a practice that later became commonplace.
- Construction of Nanchang started. Births
- Deaths
- Category:200s BC ko:201년

200 BC

Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC Years: 205 BC 204 BC 203 BC 202 BC 201 BC - 200 BC - 199 BC 198 BC 197 BC 196 BC 195 BC ---- Events
- Rome declares war upon Philip V, king of Macedon. Second Macedonian War begins.
- Roman forces defeat the Gauls of Cisalpine Gaul at Cremona
- Hannibal becomes Chief Magistrate of Carthage.
- The Bacchanalia are introduced in the Roman Empire. (approximate date)
- City of Tiwanaku founded near Lake Titicaca, in what is now modern Bolivia.
- Construction of Wei-Yang Palace in the Han Dynasty capital (Chang'an)
- Euthydemus I of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom dies and is succeeded by his son Demetrius I of Bactria (approximate date).
- The Hsiung-nu appear on the western borders of China.
- The first good measurement on the distance between Earth and the Sun was made by Eratosthenes. By studying lunar eclipses, his result was roughly 150 000 000 km. The currently accepted value is 149 597 870 691 ± 30 metres. Births
- Diophantus, Greek mathematician (approximate date of birth) Deaths
- Euthydemus I of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom (approximate date).
- ko:200년

198 BC

Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC - 190s BC - 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC Years: 203 BC 202 BC 201 BC 200 BC 199 BC - 198 BC - 197 BC 196 BC 195 BC 194 BC 193 BC ---- Events
- Battle of Panium Antiochus III the Great secures the conquest of Coele-Syria and Judea from Egypt with this victory
- Battle of the Aous Roman forces under Titus Quinctius Flamininus defeat the Macedonians under Philip V
- Abdera becomes a free city under Roman rule. Births
- Deaths
-
- ko:198년

October 19

October 19 is the 292nd day of the year (293rd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. There are 73 days remaining.

Events

- 202 BC - The Battle of Zama results in the defeat of Carthage and Hannibal.
- 439 - The Vandals, led by King Gaiseric, take Carthage in North Africa.
- 1453 - The French recapture of Bordeaux brings the Hundred Years War to a close, with the English retaining only Calais on French soil.
- 1466 - The Thirteen Years' War ends with the Second Treaty of Toruń. Gdansk Pomerania and Prussia as a whole are incorporated into Poland; the Teutonic Knights are allowed to rule its eastern part as Polish vassals.
- 1469 - Ferdinand II of Aragon marries Isabella of Castile, a marriage that paves the way to the unification of Aragon and Castile into a single country, Spain.
- 1512 - Martin Luther becomes a doctor of theology (Doctor in Biblia).
- 1781 - Major General Lord Charles Cornwallis surrenders to George Washington and Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau at Yorktown, Virginia, ending the American Revolutionary War.
- 1789- Chief Justice John Jay is sworn in as the first Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court.
- 1812 - Napoleon I of France retreats from Moscow.
- 1813 - The Battle of Leipzig concludes, giving Napoleon Bonaparte one of his worst defeats.
- 1822 - In Parnaíba city; Simplício Dias da Silva, João Cândido de Deus e Silva, Domingos Dias declares the Independence of State of Piauí.
- 1864 - Battle of Cedar Creek - Union Army under Philip Sheridan destroys Confederate Army under Jubal Early.
- 1864 - Confederate raiders launch an attack on Saint Albans, Vermont from Canada.
- 1873 - Yale, Princeton, Columbia, and Rutgers universities draft the first code of American football rules.
- 1912 - Italy takes possession of Tripoli, Libya from the Ottoman Empire.
- 1914 - The First Battle of Ypres begins.
- 1917 - Love Field in Dallas, Texas is opened.
- 1933 - Germany withdraws from the League of Nations.
- 1943 - Streptomycin, the first antibiotic remedy for tuberculosis, is isolated by researchers at Rutgers University.
- 1944 - United States forces land in the Philippines.
- 1953 - Arthur Godfrey fires Julius LaRosa live on American national TV.
- 1954 - First ascent of Cho Oyu
- 1973 - President Richard Nixon rejects an Appeals Court demand to turn over the Watergate tapes.
- 1974 - Niue becomes independent from New Zealand
- 1982 - John De Lorean is arrested for trafficking in cocaine (later acquitted).
- 1983 - Maurice Bishop, Prime Minister of Grenada, is overthrown and executed in a military coup d'état led by Bernard Coard.
- 1985 - The first Blockbuster Video store opens in Dallas, Texas.
- 1986 - Samora Machel, President of Mozambique and a prominent leader of FRELIMO, and 33 others died when their Tupolev 134 plane crashed into the Lebombo Mountains.
- 1987 - In retaliation for Iranian attacks on ships in the Persian Gulf, the U.S. Navy disables three of Iran's offshore oil platforms.
- 1987 - (Black Monday) Dow Jones Industrial Average falls by 22%.
- 1989 - Guildford Four convictions are quashed by the Court of Appeal - they had spent 15 years in prison through a miscarriage of justice.
- 1994 - New Zealand's Goodnight Kiwi says good night for the last time.
- 1998 - The Earth Liberation Front sets fire to the Vail Mountain ski resort in Vail, Colorado, causing $12 million in damage.
- 2001 - SIEV-X sinks en route to Christmas Island
- 2003 - Mother Teresa is beatified by Pope John Paul II.
- 2004 - Myanmar prime minister Khin Nyunt is ousted and placed under house arrest by the Thai government on charges of corruption.
- 2005 - Saddam Hussein goes on trial in Baghdad for crimes against humanity.

Births

- 1276 - Prince Hisaaki, Japanese shogun (d. 1328)
- 1433 - Marsilio Ficino, Italian philosopher (d. 1499)
- 1562 - Archbishop George Abbot, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1633)
- 1582 - Dmitry Ivanovich, Tsarevich (d. 1591)
- 1605 - Thomas Browne, English writer (d. 1682)
- 1610 - James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde, English statesman and soldier (d. 1688)
- 1658 - Adolf Friedrich II of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (d. 1704)
- 1688 - William Cheselden, English surgeon and anatomist (d. 1752)
- 1680 - John Abernethy, Irish protestant minister (d. 1740)
- 1718 - Victor-François, 2nd duc de Broglie, Marshal of France (d. 1804)
- 1720 - John Woolman, American Quaker preacher and abolitionist (d. 1772)
- 1721 - Joseph de Guignes, French orientalist (d. 1800)
- 1784 - John McLoughlin, Canadian fur trader (d. 1857)
- 1862 - Auguste Lumière, French inventor (d. 1954)
- 1873 - Jaap Eden, Dutch skater and cyclist (d. 1925))
- 1885 - Charles Merrill, American investment banker (d. 1956)
- 1895 - Lewis Mumford, American historian (d. 1990)
- 1899 - Miguel Angel Asturias, Guatemalan writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1974)
- 1900 - Bill Ponsford, Australian Cricketer (d. 1991)
- 1907 - Roger Wolfe Kahn, American bandleader (d. 1962)
- 1908 - Geirr Tveitt, Norwegian composer
- 1910 - Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, Indian-born physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1995)
- 1910 - Jean Genet, French author (d. 1986)
- 1913 - Vinicius de Moraes, Brazilian poet and songwriter (d. 1980)
- 1916 - Jean Dausset, French immunologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- 1916 - Emil Gilels, Ukrainian pianist (d. 1994)
- 1926 - Joel Feinberg, American moral philosopher (d. 2004)
- 1931 - John le Carré, English novelist
- 1932 - Robert Reed, American actor (d. 1992)
- 1937 - Peter Max, American artist
- 1940 - Michael Gambon, Irish actor
- 1942 - Andrew Vachss, American author and attorney
- 1945 - Divine, American actor (d. 1988)
- 1945 - John Lithgow, American actor
- 1946 - Philip Pullman English writer
- 1947 - Giorgio Cavazzano, comics artist and illustrator
- 1951 - Patricia Ireland, American President of the National Organization for Women
- 1956 - Carlo Urbani, Italian physician (d. 2003)
- 1962 - Evander Holyfield, American boxer
- 1965 - Ty Pennington, American television carpenter
- 1966 - Jon Favreau, American actor, writer, director
- 1969 - Trey Parker, American cartoonist, comedian, writer, and actor
- 1972 - Pras, American musician
- 1976 - Michael Young, baseball player
- 1989 - Dallin Schmidt, Canadian musician

Deaths

- 727 - Saint Frideswide
- 1187 - Pope Urban III
- 1216 - King John died at Newark Castle
- 1432 - John de Mowbray, 2nd Duke of Norfolk, English politician (b. 1392)
- 1587 - Francesco I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (b. 1541)
- 1608 - Martin Delrio, Flemish theologian and occultist (b. 1551)
- 1636 - Marcin Kazanowski, Polish politician
- 1682 - Thomas Browne, English writer (b. 1605)
- 1723 - Godfrey Kneller, German-born painter (b. 1646)
- 1745 - Jonathan Swift, Irish author (b. 1667)
- 1790 - Lyman Hall, American signer of the Declaration of Independence (b. 1724)
- 1813 - Józef Antoni Poniatowski, Polish prince and Marshal of France (friendly fire) (b. 1763)
- 1889 - King Louis of Portugal (b. 1838)
- 1897 - George Pullman, American inventor and industrialist (b. 1831)
- 1918 - Harold Lockwood, American actor (b. 1887)
- 1936 - Lu Xun, Chinese writer (b. 1881)
- 1937 - Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson, New Zealand physicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (b. 1871)
- 1943 - Camille Claudel, French sculptor (b. 1864)
- 1950 - Edna St. Vincent Millay, American poet (b. 1892)
- 1956 - Isham Jones, American musician (b. 1894)
- 1973 - Walt Kelly, American cartoonist (b. 1913)
- 1983 - Maurice Bishop, Prime Minister of Grenada (b. 1944)
- 1987 - Jacqueline Du Pré, English cellist (b. 1945)
- 1988 - Son House, American musician (b. 1902)
- 1982 - Cristina Pérez, World Beauty (b. 1982)
- 1992 - Arthur Wint, Jamaican runner (b. 1920)
- 1994 - Martha Raye, American comedienne and actress (b. 1916)
- 1997 - Glen Buxton, American guitarist (b. 1947)
- 1999 - Nathalie Sarraute, Russian-born French writer (b. 1900)
- 2003 - Faith Fancher, American television journalist and activist (b. 1950)
- 2003 - Alija Izetbegovic, President of Bosnia-Herzegovina (b. 1925)
- 2003 - Margaret Murie, American conservationist (b. 1902)

Holidays and observances

- Roman festivals - Armilustrium in honor of Mars
- Roman Catholic Saints - Saints Jean de Brébeuf, Isaac Jogues, and Companions; Saint Frideswide
- Also see October 19 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
- Albania - Mother Teresa Day.
- Brazil - Independence Day of State of Piauí
- Niue - Constitution Day in honour of the country's independence (self-governing in free association with New Zealand) in 1974.

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/19 BBC: On This Day] ---- October 18 - October 20 - November 19 - September 19 - more historical anniversaries ko:10월 19일 ms:19 Oktober ja:10月19日 simple:October 19 th:19 ตุลาคม

Scipio Africanus Major

Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major (Latin: P·CORNELIVS·P·F·L·N·SCIPIO·AFRICANVS¹) (235–183 BC) was a general in the Second Punic War and statesman of the Roman Republic. He was best known for defeating Hannibal of Carthage, a feat that earned him the surname Africanus. Carthage

Biography

Early years

Scipio was present at the disastrous Battle of Ticinus (where, according to one tradition, he saved his father's life); and those at the Trebia and at Cannae. Even after the last of these defeats at the hands of the Carthaginians, he was resolutely focused on securing Roman victory. On hearing that Lucius Caecilius Metellus and other politicians were at the point of giving up the struggle and quitting Italy in despair, he gathered what few followers he could find and stormed into the meeting, where at sword-point he forced all present to swear that they would continue in faithful service to Rome.

Campaign in Hispania

The year 211 BC was certainly a momentous year for the Scipiones. That year his father, Publius Scipio, and uncle Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus were both killed in battle against Hasdrubal Barca, the brother of Hannibal Barca. The year after his father's death, he offered himself for the command of the new army which the Romans resolved to send to Hispania. In spite of his youth, his noble demeanor and enthusiastic language had made so great an impression that he was unanimously elected. In the year of his arrival (210), all Hispania south of the Ebro river was under Carthaginian control, but to his fortune the three Carthaginian generals—Hannibal's brothers Hasdrubal and Mago, and Hasdrubal the son of Gisgo—were not disposed to act in concert and were preoccupied with revolts in Africa. Scipio landed at the mouth of the Ebro and was able to surprise and capture Carthago Nova, the headquarters of the Carthaginian power in Hispania. He obtained a rich booty of war stores and supplies, and an excellent harbor. His humanitarian conduct toward prisoners and hostages in Hispania helped in qualifying the Romans as liberators as opposed to conquerors. While Scipio was long known for his great chivalry, it undoubtedly had an intentional ulterior motive: Scipio realized that the Senate's first priority was the war in Italy, and in the midst of the Carthaginian base in Hispania, he was to be outnumbered without much hope of reinforcement. It was paramount therefore that Scipio cooperate with local chieftains to both supply and reinforce his small army. Arthur Wellesley, the First Duke of Wellington would also embark upon a similar strategy when he led a foreign campaign of liberation in Spain almost 2,000 years later. In 209 he fought his first set piece battle, and drove back Hasdrubal from his position at Baecula, on the upper Guadalquivir. Scipio was forced to make haste, as at any time he feared the armies of Mago and Gisgo would enter the field and surround his small army. Scipio's objective was, therefore, to quickly eliminate one of the armies to give him the luxury of dealing with the other two piecemeal. The battle was decided by a determined infantry charge up the center of the Carthaginian position. Roman losses remain enigmatic, but it can be fair to assume that Roman casualties were considerable in light of their infantry attempting to scale an elevation defended by Carthaginian light infantry. He then orchestrated a frontal attack by the rest of his infantry to draw out the remainder of the Carthaginian forces. However, Hasdrubal had not espied Scipio's hidden reserves of cavalry which were moving behind the enemy's lines. A cavalry charge created a double envelopment on either flank led by cavalry commander Gaius Laelius and Scipio himself. This broke the back of Hasdrubal's army and routed his forces- an impressive feat for the young Roman versus the veteran Carthaginian general. Despite a Roman victory, Scipio was unable to hinder the Carthaginian march to Italy. This is probably to haunt Scipio's memory for all time, for much historical criticism has been leveled at his inability to effectively pursue Hasdrubal, who would eventually cross the Alps only to be defeated by Gaius Claudius Nero at the Battle of Metaurus. One popular theory is that Scipio merely wanted the glory of securing Spain, and an extended mountainous campaign endangered that reality. Others cite the Roman soldier's appetite for plunder preventing him from rallying in pursuit. The most probable from a strategic standpoint is simply the fact that both Gisgo's and Mago's army's, both of superior numerical strength, could at any point pursue his Roman army, resulting with the possiblity that Scipio could be trapped between Hasdrubal's army on one side, and Gisgo's and Mago's on the other. In fact, mere days after Hasdrubal's defeat, Mago and Gisgo were in fact able to converge in front of the Roman positions, bringing into question what would have happened had Scipio pursued Hasdrubal. After winning over a number of chiefs from Hispania he achieved in 206 a decisive victory over the full Carthaginian levy at Ilipa (now the city of Alcalá del Río, near Hispalis, now called Seville), which resulted in the evacuation of Hispania by the Punic commanders. With the idea of striking a blow at Carthage in Africa, he paid a short visit to the Numidian princes Syphax and Massinissa. Numidia was of vital importance in a Carthage whose main source of manpower was in mercenaries and allied forces, and most of these were abroad. In addition to supplying the amazing Numidian cavalry (refer to the Battle of Cannae for their significance), Numidia operated as a buffer for vulnerable Carthage. Scipio managed to recieve support from both. Unfortunately, Syphax later changed his mind and married Sophonisba, daughter of Hasdrubal the son of Gisgo, and fought against Massinissa and Scipio in Africa. On his return to Hispania, Scipio had to quell a mutiny which had broken out among his troops. Hannibal's brother Hasdrubal had meanwhile marched for Italy, and in 206 Scipio himself, having secured the Roman occupation of Hispania by the capture of Gades, gave up his command and returned to Rome.

African Campaign

In the following year he was unanimously elected to the consulship and assigned the province of Sicily. By this time Hannibal's movements were restricted to the southwestern toe of Italy, and the war was now to be transferred to Africa. Scipio was intent on this, and his great name drew to him a number of volunteers from all parts of Italy. Interestingly, among these volunteers were the shamed survivors of the fiasco at the Battle of Cannae. Due to their public shame and berratement, they were anxious to once again prove their worth as soldiers, an asset that Scipio was quick to exploit. Scipio quickly began creating Sicily as a training camp and a staging point for his concieved invasion. However, he realized that the Carthaginian, and especially Numidian superiority in cavalry would prove decisive against the largely infantry forces of the legion. Coupled to this was that a large proportion of Rome's cavalry were dubiously loyal allies, or noble equites exempting themselves from being lowly foot soldiers. Scipio solved this pressing matter in a variety of ways, many of them quite harshly. One anecdote told how Scipio pressed into service several hundred Sicilian nobles to create a force of cavalry. The Sicilians were quite opposed to this servitude to a foreign occupier (Sicily being in Roman control only since the First Punic War), protested vigorously. Scipio ascented to their exemption from service providing they pay for a horse, equipment, and a replacement rider for the Roman Army. In this way, Scipio (through less than reputable means) created a trained nucleus of cavalry for his African campaign. With a trained army, Scipio now pressed visiting Roman Senators for permission to cross into Africa. The conservative branch of the Roman Senate, championed by Fabius Maximus, the Cunctator, opposed the mission. Fabius still feared Hannibal's power, and viewed any mission to Africa as dangerous and wasteful to the war effort. The Senate also disdained Scipio's Hellenophile tastes in art, luxuries, and philosophies. Also, a certain amount of republican fear in powerful military leaders no doubt was playing a role. Thus, all Scipio could obtain was permission, but not support, to cross over from Sicily to Africa, if it appeared to be in the interests of Rome. In short, the Senate dispatched Scipio to Africa either to get rid of him, hoping he would subsequently remain politically insignificant, or possibly militarily fail. The introduction (205) of the Phrygian worship of Cybele and the transference of the image of the goddess herself from Pessinus to Rome to bless the expedition may have affected public opinion. A commission of inquiry was sent over to Sicily, and it found that Scipio was at the head of a well-equipped fleet and army. At the commissioners' bidding he sailed in 204 and landed near Utica. Carthage, meanwhile, had secured the friendship of the Numidian Syphax, whose advance compelled Scipio to raise the siege of Utica and dig in on the shore between that place and Carthage. The following year he destroyed two combined armies of the Carthaginians and Numidians. He did so by approaching by stealth and setting fire to the Carthaginian-Numidian camp, where the combined army became panic stricken and fled only to be put down by Scipio's army. Though not a "battle," both Polybius and Livy estimate that the death toll in this single attack exceeded 40,000 Carthaginian and Numidian dead, and more captured. The praise and condemnation for this act is roughly proportional. Polybius said that it "of all the brilliant exploits performed by Scipio this seems to me the most brilliant and more adventurous." One of Hannibal's principle biographers, Theodore Ayrault Dodge, goes so far to suggest that this attack was out of cowardice, and spares no more than a page upon the event in total, despite the fact that it secured the siege of Utica, and effectively put Syphax out of the war. The irony of Dodge's accusations of Scipio's cowardice is the attack showed traces of Hannibal's accumen for the ambuscade. Scipio quickly dispatched his two lieutenants, Laelius and Masinissa, to pursue Syphax; a pursuit that ultimately dethroned Syphax, and ensured Prince Masinissa's corronation as King of the Numidian's. Carthage, and especially Hannibal himself, had long relied upon these superb natural horsemen who would now fight for Rome and against Carthage. With Carthage now deserted by her allies, and being surrounded by a veteran and undefeated Roman army which Dodge states was the best ever fielded, Carthage began opening the diplomatic channels of negotiation. It was here that the unthinkable occured: Hannibal Barca returned to Carthage. Despite Scipio's moderate terms offered to Carthage, Carthage suddenly suspended negotiations and again prepared for war. In these events, an eerie parallel can be cited with Napoleon Bonaparte's Hundred Days campaign. It is a testament to Hannibal's leadership that suddenly the mood in Carthage became one of despair to of jubiliation. The army that Hannibal returned with is a subject of much debate. Apologists for Hannibal often claim that his army was mostly composed of, ironically, Italians pressed into service which in Southern Italy, and that most of his elite veterans (and certainly cavalry) were spent. Scipio's advocates tend to be far more suspicious, and believe the number of veteran forces to remain significant. Regardless, Hannibal had a trained pool of soldiers who had fought personally in Italy to call upon, as well as a devastating weapon: eighty massive war elephants. Hannibal could boast a strength of 58,000 infantry and 6,000 cavalry, to which Scipio could answer with 34,000 infantry and 8,700 cavalry. The two generals met on a plain between Carthage and Utica forever immortalized as Zama to do battle on October 19, 202 BC. Despite mutual admiration, negotiations floundered due to Roman allegations of "Punic Faith," referring to the breach of protocols which ended the First Punic War by the Carthaginian attack on Saguntum, as well as percieved breach in contemporary military etiquette (Hannibal's numerous ambuscades). The Battle of Zama itself is recounted elsewhere, but it is noteworthy to cite Scipio's contribution to its outcome. Hannibal had arranged his infantry in three phalangial lines designed to overlap the Roman lines. His strategy, so oft reliant upon subtle strategems, was simple: a massive forward attack by the war elephants would create vulnerable gaps in the Roman lines, and these would be attacked from lines of infantry, and supported by cavalry. Rather then lining his Roman forces in the traditional manipular lines, which put the velites, princeps, and triari in succeeding lines of 500 men groups, he instead put the maniples in a chequer pattern, with his elite heavy infantry in diagonals. This was done to match the length of the Carthaginian line, but also as a strategem against the war elephants. When the Carthaginian elephants charged, they found well layed trops afore the Roman position, and were greeted by Roman trumpeters which drove many amok out of confusion and fear. Roman javelins were used to good effect, and the sharp trops caused great distress among the pachyderms. Many of them were so distraught, in fact, they charged back into their own Carthaginian lines. However, the Roman infantry was greatly rattled, and it was in this time that Massinissa's Numidian and Laelius' Roman cavalry began to charge the opposing cavalry off the field. This was done to great success, but perhaps too much vigor as both commanders pursued their routing Carthaginian counterparts. The resulting infantry clash was fierce and bloody, with neither side achieving local superiority. The battle was won when the pursuing allied cavalry rallied, and charged the rear of Hannibal's army, causing what many historians have called the "Roman Cannae." Because of the excertions of Rome and her allies against Carthage, many Roman aristocrats, especially Cato, expected Rome to raze that city to the ground. However, Scipio dictated extremely moderate terms in contrast to an immoderate Roman Senate. In fact, Hannibal was allowed to become the civic leader of Carthage as a byproduct of Scipio's moderation (which the Cato family did not forget). Scipio was welcomed back to Rome with the agnomen of Africanus. He refused the many further honours which the people would have thrust upon him. For some years he lived quietly and took no part in politics.

Syria

In 193 he was one of the commissioners sent to Africa to settle a dispute between Massinissa and the Carthaginians, which the commission did not achieve. This may have been because Hannibal, in the service of Antiochus III, might have come to Carthage to gather support for a new attack on Italy. In 190, when the Romans declared war against Antiochus III of Syria, Publius offered to join his brother Lucius, if the Senate entrusted the chief command to him. The two brothers brought the war to a conclusion by a decisive victory at Magnesia in the same year.

Allegations of Corruption

Meanwhile, Scipio's political enemies, led by Cato, had gained ground. When the Scipiones returned to Rome, two tribunes prosecuted (187) Lucius on the grounds of misappropriation of money received from Antiochus. As Lucius was in the act of producing his account-books, his brother wrested them from his hands, tore them in pieces, and flung them on the floor of the Senate house. This created a bad impression; Lucius was brought to trial, condemned and heavily fined. Africanus himself was subsequently (185) accused of having been bribed by Antiochus, but by reminding the people that it was the anniversary of his victory at Zama he caused an outburst of enthusiasm in his favor. The people crowded round him and followed him to the Capitol, where they offered thanks to the gods and begged them to give Rome more citizens like Africanus. He then retired to his country seat at Liternum on the coast of Campania where he lived until his death. With his wife Aemilia, daughter of the consul Lucius Aemilius Paullus who fell at Cannae, he had a daughter, Cornelia Africana, who became the mother of the two famous Gracchi by her marriage with Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus.

Opinions

Scipio was one of Rome's greatest generals, possibly on par with Julius Caesar. He never lost a battle. Skillful alike in strategy and in tactics, he had also the faculty of inspiring his soldiers with confidence. According to the story, Hannibal, who regarded Alexander as the first and Pyrrhus as the second among military commanders, confessed that had he beaten Scipio he should have put himself before either of them. He was a man of great intellectual culture and could speak and read Greek, and wrote his own memoirs in Greek. He also enjoyed the reputation of being a graceful orator. There was a belief that he was a special favourite of heaven and held actual communication with the gods. It is quite possible that he himself honestly shared this belief; to his political opponents he was often harsh and arrogant, but towards others singularly gracious and sympathetic. According to Gellmus, his life was written by Oppius and Hyginus, and also, it was said, by Plutarch. He often visited the temple of Jupiter and made offerings there.

Music

The exploits of Scipio inspired George Frideric Handel to write the opera Scipio, the march from which remains the regimental slow march of the British Grenadier Guards.

Notes

P·CORNELIVS·P·F·L·N·SCIPIO·AFRICANVS in English is "Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, son of Publius, grandson of Lucius"