:: wikimiki.org ::

1802

1802

1802 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar).

Events

- March 16 - West Point is established.
- March 25/27 - Treaty of Amiens between France and United Kingdom ends the War of the Second Coalition.
- March 28 - H. W. Olbers discovers the asteroid Pallas.
- May 19 - Napoleon Bonaparte establishes the French légion d'honneur (Legion of Honour).
- June 8 - Haitian revolutionary Toussaint Louverture is seized by French troops and sent to Fort-de-Jeux for prison.
- July 4 - At West Point, New York the United States Military Academy opens.
- August 2 - In a plebiscite Napoleon Bonaparte is confirmed as consul for life.
- September 11 - The Italian region of Piedmont becomes a part of Napoleonic France.
- October 2 - War ends between Sweden and Tripoli. The United States also negotiates peace, but war continues over the size of compensation.
- July - Eleuthère Irénée du Pont founds E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, the modern DuPont Company.
- October - French army enters Switzerland.
- Marie Tussaud opens her famous wax museum in London, having been commissioned during the Reign of Terror to make death masks of the victims.
- Treviranus uses the term biology for the first time.
- Thomas Wedgwood produces the world's first photograph, but has no means of fixing the image, which quickly fades.
- William Symington builds the first successful steamship, the Charlotte Dundas.
- Ludwig van Beethoven performs the Moonlight Sonata for the first time.
- William Wordsworth publishes the poem "Westminster Bridge."
- The estimated world population reaches 1 billion people.

Ongoing events

- French Revolutionary Wars (1792-1802)
- Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815)

Births

- February 11 - Lydia Child, American abolitionist author (d. 1880)
- February 19 - Wilhelm Matthias Naeff, member of the Swiss Federal Council (d. 1881)
- February 26 - Victor Hugo, French author (d. 1885)
- April 4 - Dorothea Dix, American social activist (d. 1887)
- July 24 - Alexandre Dumas, père, French author (d. 1870)
- July 26 - Mariano Arista, President of Mexico (d. 1855)
- August 5 - Niels Henrik Abel, Norwegian mathematician (d. 1829)
- August 22 - Gurdon Saltonstall Hubbard, American land speculator (d. 1886)
- November 9 - Elijah P. Lovejoy, American abolitionist (d. 1837)
- December 15 - Janos Bolyai, Hungarian mathematician (d. 1860)
- December 23 - Sara Coleridge, British scholar (d. 1852)

Deaths

- February 2 - Welbore Ellis, 1st Baron Mendip, British statesman (b. 1713)
- February 3 - Pedro Rodríguez, Conde de Campomanes, Spanish statesman and writer (b. 1723)
- February 26 - Esek Hopkins, American Revolutionary War admiral (b. 1718)
- April 18 - Erasmus Darwin, English physician and botanist (b. 1731)
- June 4 - Charles Emmanuel IV of Savoy, King of Sardinia (b. 1751)
- August 10 - Franz Aepinus, German philosopher (b. 1724)
- September 26 - Baron Jurij Vega, Slovenian mathematician, physicist, and soldier (b. 1754)
- November 9 - Thomas Girtin, English artist (b. 1775)
- November 15 - George Romney, English artist (b. 1734)
- November 16 - André Michaux, French botanist (b. 1746)
- July 22 - Marie François Xavier Bichat, French anatomist and physiologist (b. 1771) Category:1802 ko:1802년 ms:1802

Common year starting on Friday

This is the calendar for any common year starting on Friday (dominical letter C), for example, 2010. (A common year is a year with 365 days—in other words, not a leap year.)

Millennium	Century	Year
2nd Millennium:	19th century:	1802	1813	1819	1830	1841	1847	1858	1869	1875	1886	1897
2nd Millennium:	20th century:	1909	1915	1926	1937	1943	1954	1965	1971	1982	1993	1999
3rd Millennium:	21st century:	2010	2021	2027	2038	2049	2055	2066	2077	2083	2094
3rd Millennium:	22nd century:	2100	2106	2117	2123	2134	2145	2151	2162	2173	2179	2190

Category:Friday Category:Weeks ko:금요일로 시작하는 평년 th:ปีปกติสุรทินที่วันแรกเป็นวันศุกร์

United States Military Academy

The United States Military Academy, also known as West Point, or simply USMA, is a U.S. service academy and former Army fort. Established in 1802, it is the oldest military academy in the United States. Its graduates are known as "The Long Gray Line" because of the color of cadet uniforms. The Academy is located at West Point, New York, on a scenic overlook of the Hudson River, about 50 miles (80 km) north of New York City. Occupying over 16,000 acres (65 km²), it is one of the largest school campuses in the world. Its unique combination of facilities include a ski slope, a small nuclear reactor, and an artillery range, in addition to the academic buildings and sports facilities found on a typical university campus. The post itself was first occupied in 1778, and it is thus the oldest continuously occupied military post in the United States.

Overview

1778 The mission of the Academy is "to educate, train, and inspire the Corps of Cadets so that each graduate is a commissioned leader of character committed to the values of Duty, Honor, Country and prepared for a career of professional excellence and service to the Nation as an officer in the United States Army." Graduates are awarded a Bachelor of Science degree and commissioned as Second Lieutenants in the U.S. Army. They must serve a minimum of five years on active duty followed by three years in the reserves.

Rank

Unlike virtually all other bachelor-degree granting institutions in the U.S. (but like the other military academies), the Academy does not refer to its students as freshmen, sophomores, juniors, or seniors; they are instead officially called "fourth class," "third class," "second class," and "first class." Colloquially, freshmen are "plebes"; sophomores, "yearlings" or "yuks"; juniors, "cows"; seniors, "firsties." Most cadets consider plebe year to be the most difficult because of the transition from civilian to cadet. However, the third class year, or "yuk" year is generally considered to be the hardest academically.
- Fourth Class (Plebe) — Cadet Private (Member of Squad)
- Third Class (Yearling) — Cadet Private First Class (Member of Squad) or Cadet Corporal (Team Leader)
- Second Class (Cow) — Cadet Sergeant (Squad Leader); Platoon Sgt, various staff positions at the Company and Battalion level; Cadet First Sergeant (First Sergeant); Cadet Sergeant Major (Sergeant Major of a Battalion)
- First Class (Firstie) — Cadet Lieutenant (Platoon Leader), various staff positions within a Company; Cadet Captain (Company Commander, Battalion Commander, Regimental Commander), various staff positions at the Battalion level up to Brigade level; Cadet First Captain (Brigade Commander), highest position in the Corp of Cadets; Command Sergeant Major, at the Regimental and Brigade level

Organization

The Corp of Cadets has the following organization:
- 1 Brigade
- 4 Regiments
- 2 Battalions in each regiment
- 4 Companies per battalion

Training

Second Lieutenant In addition to the school year Cadets must complete mandatory summer training. All Cadets must complete the following:
- Cadet Basic training
- Cadet Field training
- A West Point detail as Cadre for either Cadet Basic training or Cadet Field training or IAW or Prep school.
- A military development school

History

The site was selected for the construction of a fort by George Washington, and the fortifications were designed in 1778 by Tadeusz Kościuszko. In addition to various forts surrounding the area, a great chain was strung across the Hudson River in order to obstruct British ships attempting to navigate the river. Though never tested, the chain performed its purpose by preventing British movement up and down the river. General Washington considered West Point one of the most important positions on the continent. The high ground above a narrow "s" curve in the Hudson River enabled the Continental Army to control the vital river traffic. He felt that the British Army could have split the colonies in two if they gained control of this land. It was as commander of the fortifications at West Point that Benedict Arnold committed his famous treason when he attempted to sell the fort to the British. George Washington quickly realized the need for a national military academy, however his Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson argued that there was no provision in the Constitution which allowed for the creation of a military academy. However, when Jefferson became president, he signed legislation establishing the United States Military Academy on March 16, 1802 and the school opened on July 4 of the same year. The Superintendent from 1817-1833 was Col.Sylvanus Thayer. He is known as the "father of the Military Academy." He upgraded academic standards, instilled military discipline and emphasized honorable conduct. Inspired by the French École Polytechnique, Thayer made civil engineering the foundation of the curriculum. For the first half century, USMA graduates were largely responsible for the construction of the bulk of the nation's initial railway lines, bridges, harbors and roads. (The tradition continues in the hands of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.) The development of other technical schools in the United States during the post-Civil War period allowed West Point to broaden its curriculum beyond a strict civil engineering focus. After World War I, Superintendent Douglas MacArthur sought to further diversify the academic curriculum. In recognition of the physical demands of modern warfare, MacArthur pushed for major changes in the physical fitness and athletic programs. "Every cadet an athlete" became an important goal. At the same time, the cadet management of the Honor System, long an unofficial tradition, was formalized with the creation of the Cadet Honor Committee. In 1964, President Lyndon Johnson signed legislation increasing the strength of the Corps of Cadets from 2,529 to 4,417 (more recently reduced to 4,000). Women were first admitted in 1976. No classes graduated in 1810 or 1816 and there were two graduating classes each in 1861, 1917, 1918, 1922 and 1943. West Point began collegiate tradition of the class ring, beginning with the class of 1835, and continuing ever since. The lone exception is the class of 1837, which had class cuff links. In recent decades, the Academy's curricular structure has been markedly changed to permit cadets to major in any one of more than a dozen fields, including a wide range of subjects from the sciences to the humanities.

Women at the Academy

cuff links West Point first accepted women as Cadets in 1976, when Congress authorized the admission of women to all of the service academies. Women comprise about 15 to 17 percent of entering plebes — or freshmen — and they pursue the same academic and professional training as do their male classmates, except that the physical education requirements for women are different from those of men. The first class with female cadets graduated in 1980. In 1989, Kristen Baker became the first female First Captain at West Point. In 1995, Rebecca Marier became the academy's first female valedictorian. Following the Air Force Academy sexual assault scandal and due to concerns about alleged sexual assault in the U.S. military the U.S. Department of Defense was required to establish a task force to investigate sexual harassment and assault at the United States military academies in the law funding the military for the 2004 fiscal year. Though the definitions were broad, the report, issued August 25, 2005, showed that during 2004 fifty percent of women at West Point reported instances of sexual harassment while 111 incidents of sexual assault were reported.[http://www.dtic.mil/dtfs/doc_recd/High_GPO_RRC_tx.pdf]

Sports

sexual assault The Military Academy's sports teams were historically called The Black Knights of the Hudson, but the nickname has been officially shortened to Black Knights. U.S. sports media use Army as a synonym for the Academy; this usage is officially endorsed. The Army mascot is the Mule.

Football: "Go Army, Beat Navy!"

Army's football team at one time was considered a top-tier college program, reaching its pinnacle under coach Earl Blaik when Army won consecutive national championships in 1944 and 1945 as well as produced three Heisman trophy winning players; Doc Blanchard in 1945, Glenn Davis in 1946 and Pete Dawkins in 1958. The football team plays its home games on Blaik Field at historic Michie Stadium located on campus near Lusk Reservoir. In recent years Army was a member of Conference USA, its NCAA Division I-A football program reverted to its former independent status after the 2004 season. It competes with the other academies for the Commander in Chief's Trophy. The 2005 football season marked Army's fourth consecutive loss in the Army-Navy Game.

Other sports

It is a member of the Division I Patriot League in most other sports; its men's hockey program competes in Atlantic Hockey. West Point also has a very competitive wrestling program currently coached by Coach Charles Barbi.

Notable alumni

Atlantic Hockey

Graduate alumni

The Academy has seen many notable graduates pass through its halls. Some graduates later served as Superintendents of the Academy.

Non-graduate alumni

- Edgar Allan Poe excelled in language, but he was expelled for neglecting duties at West Point before graduating. He would have been in the class of 1834.
- James McNeill Whistler, artist, dropped out of the class of 1855.
- Courtney Hodges, four-star general in World War II, would have been in the class of 1909; dropped out after the first year because "found deficient" in mathematics (so was his classmate George Patton, but Patton reentered to graduate with the next class).
- Timothy Leary, counterculture icon and LSD proponent, dropped out of the class of 1943.
- Fred Phelps, famously homophobic evangelist, was appointed to the class of 1950 but dropped out before even attending.
- Richard Hatch, winner of the first Survivor, dropped out of the class of 1986.
- Dan Hinote, professional NHL ice hockey player, dropped out in 1996 when he was drafted by the Colorado Avalanche. He was the first NHL player ever drafted from West Point.

Superintendents

The commanding officer of the United States Military Academy is its superintendent. This position is roughly equivalent to the president of a civilian university. Since 1812, all superintendents have themselves been West Point graduates, though this has never been an official prerequisite to hold that position. Sylvanus Thayer served as superintendent from 1817-1833, and he instituted a number of reforms to make the academy a top-tier academic institution, which it remains today. For this, Thayer is known as the "Father of the U.S. Military Academy." In recent times, the position of superintendent has been held by a Lieutenant General. Lt. Gen. William J. Lennox, Jr. (1950?- ), Class of 1971, is the current superintendent, and has held the position since 2001. The current dean of West Point is BG Patrick Finnegan (1971). He recently replaced (Summer of 2005) BG Dan Kaufman (1968).

Points of interest

Outside the secured area of the academy, there are two public buildings: the visitors center and the West Point Museum. The visitor's center offers historical and informational videos, parking, rest rooms, a gift shop, maps, pamphlets, a full-scale cadet barracks room, and a movie theater; arrangements for guided tours can also be made. These tours are operated by a licensed contractor, West Point Tours, Inc., and leave the visitor's center several times during the day. The tours will stop and allow tourists to tour the Cadet Chapel (if not in use at the time), the parade grounds and Trophy Point. For the rest of the tour, the tourists remain on the bus and as the tour guide narrates the tour of the rest of the campus. The West Point Museum is located directly behind the visitor's center. The museum is in the renovated Olmsted Hall at Pershing Center on the grounds of the former Ladycliff College. The grounds were purchased by West Point after the college closed in the early 1980s. The building is named after the museum's primary donor, Major General George H. Olmsted, Class of 1922. The museum's collections represent all major categories of military study from arms, cannon and artillery to uniforms, military art and objects reflecting West Point’s history. Originally opened in 1854, the West Point Museum is the oldest and largest military museum in the country. It contains some of our most interesting national military treasures and one of the finest collections of military small arms available for public viewing. Every American armed conflict is represented in the 135 exhibits. An additional gallery portrays the history of the United States Army during peacetime and its role as a formative nation builder of our country. West Point’s history during and after the Revolutionary War, as well as the institutional history of the Military Academy, are traced in the West Point gallery devoted to the school, the cadet and the officer. The museum also provides exhibits in Thayer Hall to support the Department of History cadet curriculum with exhibit themes which range from ancient to modern civilizations. West Point is often the first place for automobile tourists to stop and view on the New York City to Albany scenic Hudson River route.

External links

- [http://www.usma.edu/ United States Military Academy Official Website]
- [http://www.goarmysports.com/ Official Army athletics site]
- [http://www2.powercom.net/~rokats/usma.html USMA Cadet insignia]
- [http://www.westpointtours.com/ West Point Tours] - authorized tour operator for public tours of USMA
- [http://www.west-point.org/class/ USMA class pages starting in 1924] Category:United States Military Academy Category:Universities and colleges in New York Category:Orange County, New York Category:Hudson River Category:Historic civil engineering landmarks ko:웨스트포인트 군교

March 25

March 25 is the 84th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (85th in leap years). There are 281 days remaining.

Events

- 708 - Constantine is consecrated Pope.
- 1300 - Dante descends to the Inferno in The Divine Comedy
- 1306 - Robert the Bruce becomes King of Scotland.
- 1409 - The Council of Pisa opens.
- 1634 - The first settlers arrive in Maryland (led by Lord Baltimore).
- 1655 - Saturn's largest moon, Titan, is discovered by Christian Huygens.
- 1655 - Protestants take control of Maryland at the Battle of the Severn.
- 1802 - The Treaty of Amiens is signed as a "Definitive Treaty of Peace" between France and United Kingdom.
- 1807 - The Slave Trade Act becomes law, abolishing slavery in the Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
- 1821 - Greece declares its independence from the Ottoman Empire, beginning the Greek War of Independence.
- 1865 - The "Claywater Meteorite" explodes just before reaching ground level in Vernon County, Wisconsin. Fragments having a combined mass of 1.5 kg are recovered.
- 1865 - American Civil War: In Virginia, Confederate forces capture Fort Stedman from the Union in a bloody battle.
- 1894 - Coxey's Army, the first significant American protest march, departs Massillon, Ohio for Washington D.C..
- 1901 - At the five-day "Week of Nice" race in Nice, France, Mercedes wins its first racing victory.
- 1911 - In New York City the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire kills 146 garment workers.
- 1918 - The Belarusian National Republic was established.
- 1924 - Greece proclaims itself a republic.
- 1931 - The Scottsboro Boys are arrested in Alabama and charged with rape.
- 1939 - Cardinal Eugenio Pacelli becomes Pope Pius XII.
- 1941 - Kingdom of Yugoslavia joins the Axis powers.
- 1947 - A explosion in a coalmine in Centralia, Illinois kills 111.
- 1949 - The extensive deportation campaign was conducted in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. The Soviet authorities deported more than 92,000 people from Baltics to remote areas of the Soviet Union.
- 1955 - United States Customs seizes copies of Allen Ginsberg's poem "Howl" as obscene.
- 1957 - The European Economic Community is established (West Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg).
- 1960 - In London, United Kingdom, Jacqueline Boyer wins the fifth Eurovision Song Contest for France singing "Tom Pillibi".
- 1965 - Civil rights activists led by Martin Luther King, Jr. complete successfully their 4-day 50-mile march from Selma to the capitol in Montgomery.
- 1969 - During their honeymoon, John Lennon and Yoko Ono hold their first Bed-In for Peace in the Amsterdam Hilton Hotel (until March 31).
- 1971 - Bangladesh Liberation War: Beginning of Operation Searchlight of Pakistan Army against East Pakistani civilians.
- 1972 - In Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom, Vicky Leandros wins the seventeenth Eurovision Song Contest for Luxembourg singing "Après toi" (After you).
- 1975 - Faisal of Saudi Arabia is shot and killed by a mentally ill nephew.
- 1979 - The first fully functional space shuttle orbiter, Columbia, is delivered to the John F. Kennedy Space Center to be prepared for its first launch.
- 1990 - In the Bronx, New York City, a fire at an illegal social club called "Happy Land" kills 87 people.
- 1992 - Cosmonaut Sergei Krikalev returns to Earth after a 10-month stay aboard the Mir space station.
- 1995 - Ward Cunningham opens the first wiki, the WikiWikiWeb.
- 1996 - An 81-day-long standoff between the antigovernment group Montana Freemen and law enforcement near Jordan, Montana, begins.
- 1996 - The Labour Party is founded in Turkey.
- 1996 - The EU's Veterinarian Committee bans the export of British beef and its by-products as a result of mad cow disease (BSE).
- 2004 - Air Holland files for bankruptcy in response to unproven allegations of marijuana abuse by their pilots.

Births

- 1252 - Conradin, Duke of Swabia (d. 1268)
- 1297 - Arnost of Pardubice, Archbishop of Prague (d. 1364)
- 1345 - Blanche of Lancaster, wife of John of Gaunt (d. 1369)
- 1347 - Catherine of Siena, Italian saint (d. 1380)
- 1404 (baptism) - John Beaufort, 1st Duke of Somerset, English military leader (d. 1444)
- 1479 - Vasili III, Grand Prince of Moscow (d. 1533)
- 1539 - Christopher Clavius, German mathematician and astronomer (d. 1612)
- 1541 - Francesco I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (d. 1587)
- 1593 - Jean de Brébeuf, French Jesuit missionary (d. 1649)
- 1643 - Louis Moréri, French encylopedist (d. 1680)
- 1661 - Paul de Rapin, French historian (d. 1725)
- 1699 - Johann Adolph Hasse, German composer (d. 1783)
- 1767 - Joachim Murat, French marshal and King of Naples (d. 1815)
- 1863 - Simon Flexner, pathologist (d. 1946)
- 1867 - Arturo Toscanini, Italian conductor, (d. 1957)
- 1868 - William Lockwood, English cricketer (d. 1932)
- 1873 - Rudolf Rocker, German anarchist (d. 1958)
- 1881 - Béla Bartók, Hungarian composer (d. 1945)
- 1881 - Mary Gladys Webb, English writer (d. 1927)
- 1884 - Georges Imbert, Alsatian chemist (d. 1950)
- 1886 - Athenagoras, Patriarch of Constantinople (d. 1972)
- 1901 - Ed Begley, American actor (d. 1970)
- 1906 - A.J.P. Taylor, British historian (d. 1990)
- 1908 - Helmut Käutner, German actor and film director (d. 1980)
- 1908 - David Lean, English film director (d. 1991)
- 1911 - Jack Ruby, American killer of Lee Harvey Oswald (d. 1967)
- 1914 - Norman Borlaug, American agricultural scientist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize
- 1918 - Howard Cosell, American attorney, lecturer, and sports journalist (d. 1995)
- 1920 - Patrick Troughton, British actor (d. 1987)
- 1920 - Arthur Wint, Jamaican runner
- 1921 - Simone Signoret, French actress (d. 1985)
- 1925 - Flannery O'Connor, American author (d. 1964)
- 1926 - László Papp, Hungarian boxer (d. 2003)
- 1926 - Jaime Sabines, Mexican poet (d. 1999)
- 1926 - Gene Shalit, American film critic
- 1928 - Jim Lovell, astronaut
- 1929 - Wim van Est, Dutch cyclist (d. 2003)
- 1934 - Gloria Steinem, American author
- 1938 - Hoyt Axton, American musician and actor (d. 1999)
- 1939 - Toni Cade Bambara, American author (d. 1995)
- 1940 - Anita Bryant, American entertainer and activist
- 1942 - Aretha Franklin, American singer
- 1942 - Richard O'Brien, English actor and writer
- 1943 - Paul Michael Glaser, American actor
- 1946 - Bonnie Bedelia, American actress
- 1946 - Maurice Krafft, French vulcanologist (d. 1991)
- 1947 - Sir Elton John, English musician
- 1952 - Antanas Mockus, Colombian mathematician and politician
- 1956 - Matthew Garber, British actor (d. 1977)
- 1960 - Idy Chan Yuk-Lin, Hong Kong actress
- 1962 - Marcia Cross, American actress
- 1964 - Lisa Gay Hamilton, American actress
- 1965 - Sarah Jessica Parker, American actress
- 1965 - Stefka Kostadinova, Bulgarian high jumper and president of the Bulgarian olympic committee
- 1966 - Tom Glavine, baseball player
- 1967 - Matthew Barney, American media artist
- 1967 - Debi Thomas, American figure skater
- 1969 - Dale Davis, American basketball player
- 1971 - Cammi Granato, American hockey player
- 1974 - Lark Voorhies, American actress
- 1976 - Juvenile, American rapper
- 1976 - Wladimir Klitschko, Ukrainian boxer
- 1976 - Gigi Leung, Hong Kong singer/actress.
- 1982 - Danica Patrick, American race car driver
- 1989 - Alyson Michalka, American actress

Deaths

- 752 - Pope Stephen II
- 1005 - King Kenneth III of Scotland (in battle)
- 1223 - King Afonso II of Portugal (b. 1185)
- 1345 - Henry, 3rd Earl of Lancaster, English politician (b. 1281)
- 1458 - Marqués de Santillana, Spanish poet (b. 1398)
- 1558 - Marcos de Niza, French Franciscan explorer
- 1603 - Ikoma Chikamasa, Japanese warlord (b. 1526)
- 1609 - Olaus Martini, Swedish Archbishop of Uppsala (b. 1557)
- 1620 - Johannes Nucius, German composer
- 1625 - Giambattista Marini, Italian poet (b. 1569)
- 1712 - Nehemiah Grew, English naturalist (b. 1641)
- 1736 - Nicholas Hawksmoor, British architect
- 1738 - Turlough O'Carolan, Irish harper and composer (b. 1670)
- 1751 - King Frederick I of Sweden (b. 1676)
- 1801 - Novalis, German poet (b. 1772)
- 1860 - James Braid, Scottish surgeon (b. 1795)
- 1914 - Frédéric Mistral, French poet, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1830)
- 1918 - Claude Debussy, French composer (b. 1862)
- 1951 - Eddie Collins, baseball player (b. 1887)
- 1957 - Max Ophüls, German-born director and writer (b. 1902)
- 1958 - Tom Brown, American musician (b. 1888)
- 1969 - Max Eastman, American writer (b. 1883)
- 1975 - King Faisal of Saudi Arabia (b. 1906)
- 1980 - Roland Barthes, French literary critic and writer (b. 1915)
- 1980 - Milton H. Erickson, American psychiatrist (b. 1901)
- 1980 - Walter Susskind, Czech conductor (b. 1913)
- 1988 - Robert Joffrey, dancer, teacher, and choreographer (b. 1930)
- 1991 - Marcel Lefebvre, French Catholic leader (b. 1905)
- 1992 - Nancy Walker, American actress (b. 1922)
- 1995 - James Coleman, American sociologist (b. 1926)
- 1995 - Krešimir Ćosić, Croatian basketball player (b. 1948)
- 1999 - Cal Ripken, Sr., baseball manager (b. 1936)
- 2000 - Helen Martin, American actress (b. 1909)
- 2002 - Kenneth Wolstenholme, British football commentator (b. 1920)

Holidays and observances

- The Annunciation - this date is nine months before Christmas Day.
- One of the four Irish Quarter days in the Irish calendar.
- Traditional date of the start of the new year in England and Wales, until the Calendar Act of 1752 (called Lady Day - see above).
- Maryland Day
- Greek Independence Day.
- Good Friday in 2005, 2016

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/march/25 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.tnl.net/when/3/25 Today in History: March 25] ---- March 24 - March 26 - February 25 - April 25 -- listing of all days ko:3월 25일 ms:25 Mac ja:3月25日 simple:March 25 th:25 มีนาคม

March 27

March 27 is the 86th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (87th in Leap years). There are 279 days remaining.

Events

- 1306 - Robert I of Scotland and Elizabeth de Burgh are crowned king and Queen of the Scots.
- 1513 - (not 1512 as often cited) - Explorer Juan Ponce de León sights North America (specifically Florida) for the first time, mistaking it for another island.
- 1625 - Charles I becomes King of England and Scotland.
- 1782 - Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham becomes Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.
- 1794 - The government of the United States establishes a permanent United States Navy and authorizes the building of six frigates.
- 1794 - Denmark and Sweden form a neutrality compact.
- 1814 - War of 1812: In central Alabama, United States forces under General Andrew Jackson defeat the Creek at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend.
- 1836 - Texas Revolution: Goliad massacre - Antonio López de Santa Anna orders the Mexican army to kill about 400 Texans at Goliad, Texas.
- 1846 - Mexican-American War: Siege of Fort Texas.
- 1851 - First reported case of Europeans seeing Yosemite Valley.
- 1871 - First international rugby football match, England v. Scotland, played in Edinburgh at Raeburn Place.
- 1890 - A tornado strikes Louisville, Kentucky, killing 76 and injuring 200.
- 1918 - Moldova and Bessarabia join Romania.
- 1923 - FART construction completed.
- 1938 - Battle of Tai er zhuang
- 1941 - Britain supports Peter II of Yugoslavia in a coup in Yugoslavia.
- 1942 - World War II: United Kingdom forces raid the U-boat base at St. Nazaire, France.
- 1945 - World War II: Operation Starvation, the aerial mining of Japan's ports and waterways begins.
- 1952 - Sun Records begins operations.
- 1958 - Nikita Khrushchev becomes Premier of the Soviet Union.
- 1963 - Dr Beeching issues a report calling for huge cuts to the United Kingdom's rail network. See Beeching axe.
- 1964 - The Good Friday Earthquake, the most powerful earthquake in U.S. history at a magnitude of 9.2 strikes South Central Alaska, killing 125 people and inflicting massive damage to the city of Anchorage.
- 1969 - Mariner 7 is launched.
- 1976 - The first 4.6 miles of the Washington, DC subway system is opened.
- 1977 - Tenerife disaster: Two jumbo jets collide on a foggy runway on Tenerife in the Canary Islands, killing 583.
- 1980 - The Norwegian oil platform Alexander Kielland collapses in the North Sea, killing 123 of its crew of 212.
- 1986 - Car bomb explodes at Russell Street Police HQ in Melbourne, killing 1 police officer, Angela Taylor and injuring 21 people.
- 1988 - Moudud Ahmed becomes Prime Minister of Bangladesh.
- 1989 - Generations, the first American soap opera to have an entire black family in its original core cast, commences telecasts on NBC.
- 1990 - Propaganda: The United States begins broadcasting TV Martí to Cuba.
- 1993 - Jiang Zemin is appointed President of the People's Republic of China.
- 1993 - Albert Zafy becomes President of Madagascar.
- 1993 - Mahamane Ousmane becomes President of Niger.
- 1994 - One of the biggest tornado outbreaks in recent memory hits the Southeastern United States. One tornado slams into a church in Piedmont, Alabama during Palm Sunday services killing 20 and injuring 90.
- 2002 - Passover Massacre: A suicide bomber kills 29 people in Netanya, Israel.
- 2003 - An explosion in the Nitrochimie dynamite factory in Billy-Berclau, France kills 4 people. Somebody lit a match.
- 2004 - HMS Scylla, a decommissioned Leander frigate, is sunk as an artificial reef off Cornwall, the first of its kind in Europe.

Births

- 972 - King Robert I of France (d. 1031)
- 1416 - Antonio Squarcialupi, Italian composer (d. 1480)
- 1627 - Stephen Fox, English politician (d. 1716)
- 1702 - Johann Ernst Eberlin, German composer (d. 1762)
- 1712 - Claude Bourgelat, French veterinary surgeon (d. 1779)
- 1714 - Francesco Antonio Zaccaria, Italian theologian and historian (d. 1795)
- 1730 - Thomas Tyrwhitt, English classical scholar (d. 1786)
- 1746 - Michael Bruce, Scottish poet (d. 1767)
- 1765 - Franz Xaver von Baader, German philosopher and theologian (d. 1841)
- 1785 - King Louis XVII of France (d. 1795)
- 1797 - Alfred de Vigny, French author (d. 1863)
- 1809 - Baron Haussmann, French civic planner (d. 1891)
- 1810 - William Hepworth Thompson, English classical scholar (d. 1886)
- 1813 - Nathaniel Currier, American illustrator (d. 1888)
- 1817 - Karl Wilhelm von Nägeli, Swiss biologist (d. 1891)
- 1845 - Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1923)
- 1847 - Otto Wallach, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1931)
- 1851 - Vincent d'Indy, French composer and teacher (d. 1931)
- 1857 - Karl Pearson, English statistician (d. 1936)
- 1860 - Frank Frost Abbott, American classical scholar (d. 1924)
- 1863 - Sir Henry Royce, English automobile pioneer (d. 1933)
- 1869 - James McNeill, Irish politician (d. 1938)
- 1871 - Heinrich Mann, German writer (d. 1950)
- 1882 - Ferde Grofé, American composer (d. 1972)
- 1883 - Marie Under, Estonian author and poet (d. 1980)
- 1886 - Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, German architect (d. 1969)
- 1893 - Karl Mannheim, Hungarian sociologist (d. 1947)
- 1899 - Gloria Swanson, American actress (d. 1983)
- 1901 - Carl Barks, American illustrator (d. 2000)
- 1901 - Sasaki Naojiro, Japanese author (d. 1943)
- 1901 - Erich Ollenhauer, German politician (d. 1963)
- 1901 - Eisaku Sato, Prime Minister of Japan, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1975)
- 1901 - Kenneth Slessor, Australian poet (d. 1971)
- 1905 - Elsie MacGill, Canadian aeronautical engineer (d. 1980)
- 1906 - Pee Wee Russell, American musician (d. 1969)
- 1909 - Golo Mann, German historian (d. 1994)
- 1912 - James Callaghan, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 2005)
- 1914 - Richard Denning, American actor (d. 1998)
- 1914 - Budd Schulberg, American screenwriter and novelist
- 1915 - Junior Lockwood, American musician
- 1917 - Cyrus Vance, American politician (d. 2002)
- 1921 - Harold Nicholas, American dancer (d. 2000)
- 1922 - Stefan Wul, French author (d. 2003)
- 1923 - Endo Shusaku, Japanese author (d. 1996)
- 1923 - Louis Simpson, Jamaican-born poet
- 1924 - Sarah Vaughan, American singer (d. 1990)
- 1927 - Mstislav Rostropovich, Russian cellist and conductor
- 1931 - David Janssen, American actor (d. 1980)
- 1935 - Abelardo Castillo, Argentine writer
- 1935 - Julian Glover, British actor
- 1939 - Cale Yarborough, American race car driver
- 1941 - Ivan Gašparovič, President of Slovakia
- 1942 - John E. Sulston, British chemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- 1942 - Michael York, English actor
- 1947 - Brian Jones, British balloonist
- 1950 - Tony Banks, English musician (Genesis)
- 1952 - Maria Schneider, French actress
- 1956 - Leung Kwok Hung, Hong Kong political activist
- 1957 - Nick Hawkins, British politician
- 1961 - Tak Matsumoto, Japanese guitarist (B'z)
- 1962 - Jann Arden, Canadian musician
- 1963 - Quentin Tarantino, American actor, director, writer, and producer
- 1963 - Xuxa, Brazilian television personality
- 1966 - Paula Trickey, American actress
- 1967 - Talisa Soto, American actress
- 1968 - Sadie Frost, British actress
- 1968 - Sandra Hess, Swiss-born actress and model
- 1969 - Keith Flint, Member of British group The Prodigy
- 1970 - Mariah Carey, American singer
- 1970 - Princess Leila of Iran (d. 2001)
- 1971 - David Coulthard, Scottish race car driver
- 1972 - Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink, Dutch football striker
- 1975 - Fergie, American musician (Black Eyed Peas)

Deaths

- 1191 - Pope Clement III
- 1350 - King Alfonso XI of Castile, (b. 1312)
- 1378 - Pope Gregory XI
- 1462 - Vasili II of Russia, Grand Prince of Moscow (b. 1415)
- 1482 - Mary of Burgundy, daughter of Charles the Bold and wife of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1457)
- 1555 - William Hunter, protestant martyr
- 1615 - Margaret of Valois, queen of Henry IV of France (b. 1553)
- 1625 - King James I of England and Ireland, James VI of Scotland (b. 1566)
- 1635 - Robert Naunton, English politician (b. 1563)
- 1697 - Simon Bradstreet, English colonial magistrate (b. 1603)
- 1757 - Johann Stamitz, Czech-born composer (b. 1717)
- 1770 - Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, Italian artist (b. 1696)
- 1809 - Joseph-Marie Vien, French painter (b. 1716)
- 1827 - François Alexandre Frédéric, duc de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, French social reformer (b. 1747)
- 1836 - James Fannin, Texas revolutionary (b. 1804)
- 1843 - Karl Salomo Zachariae von Lingenthal, German jurist (b. 1769)
- 1849 - Archibald Acheson, 2nd Earl of Gosford (b. 1776)
- 1850 - Wilhelm Beer, German astronomer (b. 1797)
- 1864 - Jean-Jacques Ampère, French scholar (b. 1800)
- 1865 - Petrus Hoffman Peerlkamp, Dutch scholar (b. 1786)
- 1873 - Amedée Simon Dominique Thierry, French journalist and historian (b. 1797)
- 1875 - Edgar Quinet, French historian (b. 1803)
- 1878 - Sir George Gilbert Scott, English architect (b. 1811)
- 1889 - John Bright, English statesman (b. 1811)
- 1910 - Alexander Emanuel Agassiz, American scientist and engineer (b. 1835)
- 1918 - Henry Adams, American historian (b. 1838)
- 1923 - Sir James Dewar, Scottish chemist (b. 1842)
- 1924 - Walter Parratt, English composer (b. 1841)
- 1927 - Joe Start, baseball player (b. 1842)
- 1931 - Arnold Bennett, British novelist (b. 1867)
- 1940 - Michael Joseph Savage, Prime Minister of New Zealand (b. 1872)
- 1967 - Jaroslav Heyrovský, Czech chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1890)
- 1967 - Jim Thompson, American designer (disappeared) (b. 1906)
- 1968 - Yuri Gagarin, cosmonaut (b. 1934)
- 1969 - B. Traven, German writer
- 1972 - Sharkey Bonano, American musician (b. 1904)
- 1972 - M. C. Escher, Dutch artist (b. 1898)
- 1977 - A. P. Hamann, American politician
- 1977 - Diana Hyland, American actress (b. 1936)
- 1981 - Mao Dun, Chinese writer (b. 1895)
- 1989 - Jack Starrett, American actor and director (b. 1936)
- 1991 - Ralph Bates, British actor (b. 1940)
- 1991 - Aldo Ray, American actor (b. 1926)
- 1992 - Easley Blackwood, American bridge player (b. 1903)
- 1993 - Paul Laszlo, Hungarian interior designer and architect (b. 1900)
- 1998 - David McClelland, psychological theorist (b. 1917)
- 1998 - Ferry Porsche, Austrian automobile manufacturer (b. 1909)
- 2000 - Ian Dury, English rock musician (b. 1942)
- 2002 - Milton Berle, American actor and comedian (b. 1908)
- 2002 - Dudley Moore, British actor, musician, and composer (b. 1935)
- 2002 - Billy Wilder, American director (b. 1906)
- 2003 - Ricardo Munguia, aid worker in Afghanistan
- 2003 - Paul Zindel, American writer (b. 1936)
- 2005 - Bob Casey, baseball announcer (b. 1925)

Holidays and observances

- 2005, 2016: Easter
- Angolan Victory Day
- Feast day of Rupert of Salzburg in the Roman Catholic Church

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/march/27 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.tnl.net/when/3/27 Today in History: March 27] ---- March 26 - March 28 - February 27 - April 27 -- listing of all days ko:3월 27일 ms:27 Mac ja:3月27日 simple:March 27 th:27 มีนาคม

Napoleonic Wars

The Napoleonic Wars were a series of wars fought during Napoleon Bonaparte's rule over France. They were partly an extension of conflicts sparked by the French Revolution, and continued during the regime of the First French Empire. These wars revolutionized European army and artillery systems. French power rose quickly, conquering most of Europe; the fall was also rapid, beginning with the disastrous invasion of Russia, and Napoleon's empire ultimately suffered complete military defeat, resulting in the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in France. There is no consensus on when the French Revolutionary Wars ended and the Napoleonic Wars began; the latter are sometimes considered to have begun when Bonaparte seized power in France, in November 1799. Other versions put the period of warfare between 1799 and 1802 in the context of the French Revolutionary Wars, and set the Napoleonic Wars' beginning at the outbreak of war between the United Kingdom and France in 1803, following the brief peace concluded at Amiens in 1802. The Napoleonic Wars ended on 20 November 1815, following Napoleon's final defeat at Waterloo and the Second Treaty of Paris. Collectively, the nearly continuous period of warfare from April 20, 1792, until November 20, 1815, is sometimes (though rarely these days) referred to as the Great French War.

Political effects of the wars

Great French War] The Napoleonic Wars brought some great changes upon the face of Europe:
- France was no longer a dominant power in Europe, as it had been since the times of Louis XIV.
- The United Kingdom emerged as the most powerful nation in the world. The Royal Navy held unquestioned naval superiority throughout the world, and the United Kingdom's industrial economy made it the most powerful commercial nation as well.
- In most European countries, the importation of the ideals of the French Revolution (democracy, due process in courts, abolition of privileges, etc.) had left a mark. Even though Napoleonic rule was authoritarian, it was often less authoritarian and arbitrary than that of previous monarchs (or for that matter the Jacobin and Directory regimes of France during the Revolution). European monarchs found it difficult to reinstate pre-revolutionary absolutism, and were forced to keep some of the reforms induced by the occupation. Institutional legacies have remained: for instance, many European countries have a Civil law legal system, with clearly redacted codes compiling the basic laws.
- A new and potentially powerful movement had been sprung: nationalism. Nationalism was to re-shape the course of European history forever. It was the force that spelled the beginning of some nations, and the end of others. The map of Europe was to be re-drawn in the next hundred years following Napoleon's wars, not based on fiefs and aristocracy, but on the basis of human culture, origin, and ideology.
- On the other hand, another concept had been brought about — that of Europe. Napoleon mentioned on several occasions his intention to create a single European state, and, although Napoleon's defeat set the thought of a unified Europe back over one and a half centuries, the European identity was rediscovered following the Second World War.

Military legacy of the wars

The Napoleonic Wars also had a profound military impact. Until the time of Napoleon, European states had employed relatively small armies with a large proportion of mercenaries that sometimes fought for foreign states against their native countries. However, military innovators in the middle of the 18th century began to recognize the potential of a "nation at war". Napoleon was an innovator in the use of mobility to offset numerical disadvantages, as he brilliantly demonstrated in his rout of the Austro-Russian forces in 1805 in the Battle of Austerlitz. The French Army reorganized the role of artillery in warfare, forming independent and mobile artillery units as opposed to the previous tradition of attaching artillery pieces in support of other troop units. Napoleon standardized the cannonball sizes to ensure easier resupply and compatibility among his army's artillery pieces. With the fourth-largest population in the world by the end of the 18th century (27 million, as compared to the United Kingdom's 12 million and Russia's 35-40 million), France was well poised to take advantage of the 'levée en masse'. Because the revolution and Napoleon's reign witnessed the first application of the lessons of the 18th century's wars on trade and dynastic disputes, it is often falsely assumed that such ideas were the fruit of the revolution rather than ideas which found their implementation in it. Not all the credit for the innovations of this period should be given to Napoleon, however. Lazare Carnot played a large part in the reorganization of the French army in 1793–4 — a time in which French fortunes were reversed with Republican armies advancing on all fronts. The sizes of the armies involved give an obvious indication of the change in warfare. During Europe's last major war, the Seven Years War, few armies ever numbered more than 200,000. By contrast, the French army peaked in size in the 1790s when about 1.5 million Frenchmen were enlisted. In total, about 2.8 million Frenchmen fought in the conflict on land, and about 150,000 fought at sea, bringing the total for France to almost 3 million combatants. The United Kingdom had 747,670 men under arms between 1792 and 1815. In addition, about a quarter of a million personnel served in the Royal Navy. Totals for other major combatants are difficult to find, but in September 1812, Russia had about 904,000 enlisted men in its land forces — meaning the total number of Russians that fought must have been in the vicinity of 2 million or more. Austria's forces peaked in number at about 576,000 and had little or no naval forces. After the United Kingdom, Austria was the most persistent enemy of France, and it is reasonable to assume that more than a million Austrians served in total. Prussia never had more than 320,000 men under arms at any given point, only just ahead of the United Kingdom. Spain's armies also peaked in size at around 300,000, but to this we need to add a considerable force of guerillas. The only other nations to ever have more than 100,000 under arms were the Ottoman Empire, Italy, Naples and Poland (not including the United States (286,730 total combatants) or the Maratha Confederation). Even small nations now had armies rivalling the Great Powers of past wars in size. However it is necessary to bear in mind that the above numbers of soldiers are obtained from military records and in practice the actual numbers of fighting men would be below this level due to desertion, fraud by officers claiming non-existent soldiers pay, death and, in some countries, deliberate exaggeration to ensure enlistment targets were met. Despite this there clearly was an expansion in the size of armed forces at this time. The initial stages of the Industrial Revolution had much to do with this — it now became easy to mass-produce weapons and thus equip significantly larger forces. The United Kingdom was the largest single manufacturer of armaments in this period, supplying most of the weapons used by the Allied powers throughout the conflicts (although using relatively few themselves). France was the second-largest producer, arming its own huge forces as well as those of the Confederation of the Rhine and other allies. Another advance which affected warfare was the semaphore system that allowed the war minister Carnot to communicate with French forces on the frontiers throughout the 1790s. This system continued to be used for the whole period of the wars. Additionally, aerial surveillance was used for the first time, when the French used a hot-air balloon to survey Allied positions before the Battle of Fleurus, on June 26, 1794. There were also advances in ordnance and rocketry during the conflict.

The First and Second Coalitions

rocketry in 1799.]] :For a more detailed account, see the French Revolutionary Wars. The first attempt to crush the new French republic was made in 1792-1797 by the First Coalition, which consisted of:
- Austria,
- Piedmont,
- Prussia,
- Spain and
- the United Kingdom. It was defeated by the French efforts, which consisted of general conscription (levée en masse), military reform and total war. Napoleon Bonaparte's Italian campaign in 1796 and 1797 successfully knocked Piedmont out of the war. Piedmont had been one of the original members of the Coalition and had been a persistent threat to the French on the Italian front for four years by the time Bonaparte assumed command of the French Army of Italy. It took Bonaparte only a month to defeat Piedmont and push its Austrian allies back. The Papal forces were defeated by the French at Fort Urban, (forcing Pope Pius VI to sign a provisional peace treaty) and successive Austrian counteroffensives into Italy failed, leading to Bonaparte's entry into Friuli. The war was ended by Bonaparte when the Austrians were forced to accept his terms in the Treaty of Campo Formio. The United Kingdom remained the only power still at war with France by 1797. The Second Coalition (1798-1801) consisted of Russia, the United Kingdom, Austria, the Ottoman Empire, Portugal, Naples and the Papal States. The corrupt and divided French government, under the Executive Directory, was in turmoil, and the Republic was almost broken up and very short of funds (indeed in 1799, when Bonaparte assumed power, he found only 60,000 francs in the national treasury). Russian involvement was also a key change from the War of the First Coalition. Russian forces in Italy were commanded by the notoriously ruthless and militarily successful Alexander Suvorov. The French Republic was also stripped of Lazare Carnot—the war minister who had guided France to successive victories following massive reform during the first war. Furthermore, Bonaparte was involved in an Egyptian campaign with the objective of threatening British India. Stripped of two of its most important military commanders from the previous conflict, the Republic suffered successive defeats against revitalized enemies, brought back into the war by British financial support. After an ill-conceived campaign of Egypt by the French Directory, where 40,000 French troops where ultimately worn out by diseases and English and Ottoman attacks, Bonaparte managed to return to France on August 23rd 1799. He seized control of the French government in November 1799 (the coup of 18 Brumaire), toppling the Directory with the aid of ideologue Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès. The offensive of the Austrian forces on the Rhine and in Italy was a pressing threat to France, but all Russian troops were withdrawn from the front, following Tsarina Catherine II of Russia's death. Napoleon reorganised the French military and created a reserve army positioned to support the efforts either on the Rhine or in Italy. On all fronts, French advances caught Austrians off-guard. At the time, the French army had 300,000 troops fighting the Coalition's forces. In Italy, the situation was reversed by increased Austrian pressure, however, and Napoleon was forced to mobilise the Reserve Army. He clashed with the Austrians at Marengo (June 14, 1800) and would have lost had it not been for General Desaix's timely intervention to turn back the Austrian attacks and defeat them. Desaix died in the battle and Napoleon later commemorated his bravery by building monuments to him and including his name in the list of generals engraved on the face of the Arc de Triomphe. However, on the Rhine the decisive battle came when the French army of 180,000 faced the Austrian army of 120,000 at Hohenlinden (December 3). The Austrians were defeated and temporarily left the conflict after the Treaty of Lunéville (February 1801). Napoleon's main problem was now the United Kingdom, which remained an important influence on the continental powers in encouraging resistance to France. The United Kingdom had brought the second coalition together through subsidies and Napoleon realised that without British defeat or a treaty with the UK there could not be a complete peace. The British army was small and presented little or no threat to France itself, but the Royal Navy was a continuing threat to French shipping and to the French colonies in the Caribbean. Additionally, British funds were sufficient to unite the Great Powers on the continent against France and, despite numerous defeats, the Austrian army remained a potent danger for Napoleonic France. Napoleon was, however, unable to invade Great Britain directly. In the British Admiral Jervis's famous phrase, "I do not say, my Lords, that the French will not come. I say only they will not come by sea". The French fleet was defeated by Admiral Horatio Nelson in the Battle of the Nile (August 1) at Aboukir (Abu Qir), and a French expedition to Ireland was also quickly contained. The Treaty of Amiens (1802) resulted in peace between the UK and France, and marked the final collapse of the Second Coalition. However, the treaty was never likely to endure: neither side was satisfied by it and both sides dishonoured parts of it. Hostilities were renewed on May 18, 1803. The conflict changed over its course from a general desire to restore the French monarchy into an almost manichean struggle against Bonaparte. Bonaparte declared France an empire on May 28, 1804 and crowned himself emperor at Notre-Dame on December 2.

The Third Coalition

December 2 Napoleon planned an invasion of the British Isles, and massed 180,000 troops at Boulogne. However, he needed to achieve naval superiority to mount his invasion, or at least to pull the British fleet away from the English Channel. A complex plan to distract the British by threatening their possessions in the West Indies failed when a Franco-Spanish fleet under Admiral Villeneuve turned back after an inconclusive action off Cape Finisterre. Villeneuve was blockaded in Cádiz until he left for Naples on October 19, but was caught and defeated at the Battle of Trafalgar on October 21 by