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1790

1790

1790 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 8 - George Washington gives the first State of the Union Address.
- January 30 - The first boat specialized as a lifeboat is tested on the River Tyne.
- February 1 - In New York City the Supreme Court of the United States convenes for the first time.
- February 4 - Louis XVI of France declares to the National Assembly that he will maintain the constitutional laws
- February 11 - Religious Society of Friends petitions Congress for the abolition of slavery.
- March 1 - The first United States census is authorized.
- March 4 - France is divided into 83 départements, which cut across the former provinces, in an attempt to dislodge regional loyalties based on noble ownership of land.
- March 21 - Thomas Jefferson reported to President Washington in New York as the new secretary of state.
- May 29 - Rhode Island ratifies the United States Constitution and becomes the 13th U.S. state.
- June 23 - Alleged London Monster arrested in London - he later receives two years for three assaults
- July 9 - Russo-Swedish War: Second Battle of Svensksund - In the Baltic Sea, the Swedish navy captures one third of the Russian fleet.
- July 16 - The signing of the Residence Bill establishes a site along the Potomac River as the District of Columbia (seat of government) of the United States (see Washington, DC).
- July 31 - Inventor Samuel Hopkins becomes the first to be issued a US patent (for an improved method of making potash).
- August 4 - A newly passed tariff act creates the Revenue Cutter Service (the forerunner of the United States Coast Guard).
- William Pitt refuses to recognize Belgian independence.
- Construction begins on the White House.
- U.S. Funding Bill introduced by Alexander Hamilton.
- Philadelphia becomes federal capital of the great U.S..

Ongoing events

- French Revolution (1789-1799)

Births

- March 29 - John Tyler, 10th President of the United States (d. 1862)
- May 23 - Jules Dumont d'Urville, French explorer (d. 1842)
- June 1 - Ferdinand Raimund, Austrian playwright (d. 1836)
- November 17 - August Ferdinand Möbius, German mathematician and astronomer (d. 1868)
- December 8 - Augustus Meineke, German Classical Scholar (d. 1870)
- December 16 - Léopold I of Belgium (d. 1865)
- December 19 - William Edward Parry, English Arctic explorer (d. 1855)
- December 23 - Jean-François Champollion, French Egyptologist (d. 1832)
- Edmund Lyons, 1st Lord Lyons, British admiral (d. 1858)

Deaths

- January 13 - Luc Urbain de Bouexic, comte de Guichen, French admiral (b. 1712)
- January 15 - John Landen, English mathematician (b. 1719)
- January 31 - Thomas Lewis, Irish-born Virginia settler (b. 1718)
- February 5 - William Cullen, Scottish physician and chemist (b. 1710)
- February 20 - Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1741)
- March 12 - Andreas Hadik, Austro-Hungarian general (b. 1710)
- April 17 - Benjamin Franklin, American scientist and statesman (b. 1706)
- May 4 - Matthew Tilghman, American Continental Congressman (b. 1718)
- May 9 - William Clingan, American Continental Congressman
- May 16 - Philip Yorke, 2nd Earl of Hardwicke, English politician (b. 1720)
- May 21 - Thomas Warton, English poet (b. 1728)
- May 29 - Israel Putnam, American Revolutionary War general (b. 1718)
- July 7 - François Hemsterhuis, Dutch philosopher (b. 1721)
- July 14 - Ernst Gideon Freiherr von Laudon, Austrian field marshal (b. 1717)
- July 17 - Adam Smith, Scottish economist and philosopher (b. 1723)
- July 25 - Johann Bernhard Basedow, German educational reformer (b. 1723)
- July 25 - William Livingston, Governor of New Jersey (b. 1723)
- September 2 - Johann Nikolaus von Hontheim, German historian and theologian (b. 1701)
- October 19 - Lyman Hall, American signer of the Declaration of Independence (b. 1724)
- November 6 - James Bowdoin, American Revolutionary leader and politician (b. 1726)
- November 16 - Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, American Continental Congressman (b. 1723)
- ko:1790년 ms:1790 simple:1790

Common year starting on Friday

This is the calendar for any common year starting on Friday (dominical letter C), for example, 2010. (A common year is a year with 365 days—in other words, not a leap year.)

Millennium	Century	Year
2nd Millennium:	19th century:	1802	1813	1819	1830	1841	1847	1858	1869	1875	1886	1897
2nd Millennium:	20th century:	1909	1915	1926	1937	1943	1954	1965	1971	1982	1993	1999
3rd Millennium:	21st century:	2010	2021	2027	2038	2049	2055	2066	2077	2083	2094
3rd Millennium:	22nd century:	2100	2106	2117	2123	2134	2145	2151	2162	2173	2179	2190

Category:Friday Category:Weeks ko:금요일로 시작하는 평년 th:ปีปกติสุรทินที่วันแรกเป็นวันศุกร์

George Washington

George Washington (February 22 1732 – December 14 1799) was the successful Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), and later became the first President of the United States, an office to which he was elected twice (1789-1797). Washington first gained prominence as an officer during the French and Indian War, a war which he inadvertently helped to start. After leading the American victory in the Revolutionary War, he refused to lead a military regime, returning to civilian life at Mount Vernon. In 1787 he presided over the Constitutional Convention that drafted the current U.S. Constitution, and in 1789 was the unanimous choice to become the first President of the United States. His two-term Washington Administration set many policies and traditions that survive today. After his second term expired, Washington again voluntarily relinquished power, thereby establishing an important precedent that was to serve as an example for other future republics. Because of his central role in the founding of the United States, and his enduring legacy, Washington is often called the "Father of his Country". Scholars rank him with Abraham Lincoln among the greatest of presidents.

Early life

According to the Julian calendar, Washington was born on February 11 1731; according to the Gregorian calendar, which was adopted during Washington's life and is used today, he was born on February 22 1732 (Washington's Birthday is celebrated on the Gregorian date). At the time of his birth, the English year began March 25 (Annunciation Day, or Lady Day), hence the difference in his birth year. His birthplace was Pope's Creek Plantation, south of Colonial Beach in Westmoreland County, Virginia. Washington was part of the economic and cultural elite of the slave-owning planters of Virginia. His parents Augustine Washington (1693–April 12 1743) and Mary Ball (1708–August 25 1789) were of English descent. He spent much of his boyhood at Ferry Farm in Stafford County, near Fredericksburg and visited his Washington cousins at Chotank in King George County. He was home schooled and was also trained as a surveyor (obtaining his certificate from the College of William and Mary). He surveyed the Shenandoah Valley for Lord Fairfax, a distant relative, in western Virginia and retained a lifelong interest in western lands. His only foreign trip was a short visit to Barbados in 1751. He survived an attack of smallpox, although his face was scarred by the disease. He was initiated as a Freemason in Fredericksburg on February 4 1752. On brother Lawrence's death in July 1752, he rented and eventually inherited the estate, Mount Vernon in Fairfax County, Virginia (near Alexandria).

French and Indian War and afterwards

Alexandria At twenty-two years of age, George Washington fired some of the first shots of what would become a world war. The trouble began in 1753, when France began building a series of forts in the Ohio Country, a region also claimed by Virginia. Robert Dinwiddie, the governor of Virginia, had young Major Washington deliver a letter to the French commander, asking them to leave. The French refused, and so in 1754 Dinwiddie sent Washington, now promoted to lieutenant colonel in the First Virginia Regiment, on another mission to the Ohio Country. There, Washington and his troops ambushed a French Canadian scouting party. After a short skirmish, Washington's American Indian ally Tanacharison killed the wounded French commander Ensign Jumonville. Washington then built Fort Necessity, which soon proved inadequate, as he was compelled to surrender to a larger French and American Indian force. The surrender terms that Washington signed included an admission that he had "assassinated" Jumonville. (The document was written in French, which Washington could not read.) The "Jumonville affair" became an international incident and helped to ignite the French and Indian War, a part of the worldwide Seven Years' War. Washington was released by the French with the promise not to return to the Ohio Country for one year. Washington was always eager to serve in the British Army, which had a low regard for colonials. His opportunity came in 1755, when he accompanied the Braddock Expedition, a major effort by the British to retake the Ohio Country. The expedition ended in disaster at the Battle of the Monongahela. Washington distinguished himself in the debacle—he had two horses shot out from under him, and four bullets pierced his coat—yet he sustained no injuries and showed coolness under fire in organizing the retreat. In Virginia, Washington was acclaimed as a hero, and he commanded the First Virginia Regiment for several more years, although the focus of the war had shifted elsewhere. In 1758 he accompanied the Forbes Expedition, which successfully drove the French away from Fort Duquesne. Washington's goal at the outset of his military career had been to secure a commission as a regular British officer—rather than staying a mere colonial officer. The promotion did not come, and so in 1759 Washington resigned his commission and married Martha Dandridge Custis, a wealthy widow with two children. Washington adopted her two children, but never fathered any of his own. The newlywed couple moved to Mount Vernon where he took up the life of a genteel farmer and slave owner. He held local office and was elected to the provincial legislature, the House of Burgesses. By 1774 Washington had become one of the colonies' wealthiest men. In that year, he was chosen as a delegate from Virginia to the First Continental Congress. Although the American Revolution had not yet devolved into open warfare, tensions between the colonies and Great Britain continued to rise, and Washington attended the Second Continental Congress (1775) in military uniform—the only delegate to do so. He strongly supported independence.

American Revolution

American Revolution, 1851, Metropolitan Museum]] The Continental Congress needed to select as commander in chief of its newly formed Continental Army a natural leader with a commitment to the cause, suitable military experience, a commanding personality, and a base in a major colony. Washington was the unanimous selection, and was selected on June 15 1775. The Massachusetts delegate John Adams suggested his appointment, citing his "skill as an officer... great talents and universal character." He assumed command on July 3. During his first great military triumph Washington drove the British forces out of Boston on March 17, 1776, by stationing artillery on Dorchester Heights. The British army, led by General William Howe, retreated to Halifax, Canada. Washington moved his army to New York City in anticipation of a British offensive there. In August the British invaded in overwhelming numbers and Washington led a clumsy retreat that almost failed. He lost the Battle of Long Island on August 22 but managed to move most of his forces to the mainland. However, several other defeats sent Washington scrambling across New Jersey, leaving the future of the Revolution in doubt. On the night of December 25 1776, Washington staged a brilliant comeback. He led the American forces across the Delaware River to smash the Hessian forces in Trenton, New Jersey. Washington followed up the assault with a surprise attack on General Charles Cornwallis' forces at Princeton on the eve of January 2, 1777, eventually retaking the state of New Jersey. The successful attacks built morale among the pro-independence colonists. In summer 1777 the British launched a two-pronged attack, with Burgoyne marching south from Canada while Howe attacked the national capital of Philadelphia. Washington moved south but was badly defeated at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11. An attempt to dislodge the British, the Battle of Germantown, failed as a result of fog and confusion, and Washington was forced to retire to winter quarters at the miserably inadequate Valley Forge. In the face of high rates of disease Washington insisted on vaccinations to protect the soldiers from smallpox, which probably stem impact of that deadly disease over the harsh winter. Washington stood steadfast, demanding supplies from Congress. His men recovered their morale despite the harsh winter conditions. A new system of drill and training was established by Baron Friedrich von Steuben, who had served on the Prussian general staff. Von Steuben improving the army’s fighting capabilities so that it could match the British in the field. Washington attacked the British army moving from Philadelphia to New York at the Battle of Monmouth on June 28 1778, a drawn contest, but the British effort to disrupt the national government had failed. Burgoyne’s invading army, meanwhile, was captured at Saratoga in October, giving the British a crushing defeat. It now seemed likely that the British would never reconquer the new nation, and France signed a formal alliance with the U.S. After 1778 the British made one last effort to split apart the new nation, this time focused on the southern states. Rather than attack them there, Washington's forces moved to West Point New York. In 1779 Washington ordered a fifth of the army to carry out the Sullivan Expedition, an offensive against four of the six nations of the Iroquois Confederacy which had allied with the British and attacked American settlements along the frontier. There were no battles but at least forty Iroquois villages were destroyed and the hostile Indians moved permanently to Canada. In October, 1781 American and French forces and a French fleet trapped General Cornwallis at Yorktown in Virginia. Washington quick-marched south, taking command of the American and French forces September 14, and pressed the siege until Cornwallis surrendered. It was the end of significant fighting, though British forces remained in New York City and a few other places until the final peace was ratified in 1783. In March 1783, Washington learned about a conspiracy that was being planned by some of his officers who were upset about back pay in the Continental Army's winter camp at Newburgh, New York. He was able to defuse this plot. Later in 1783, by means of the Treaty of Paris, the British recognized American independence. Washington disbanded his army and on November 2 at Rockingham House in Rocky Hill, New Jersey and gave an eloquent [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mgw3&fileName=mgw3b/gwpage016.db&recNum=347 farewell address] to his soldiers. A few days later the British evacuated New York City, and Washington and the governor took possession of the city; at Fraunces Tavern in the city on December 4, he formally bid his officers farewell.

Activities between Revolution and Presidency

Fraunces Tavern On December 23 1783 General George Washington resigned his commission as Commander in Chief of the Army to the Congress, which was then meeting at the Maryland State House in Annapolis. This action was of great significance for the young nation, establishing the precedent that civilian elected officials, rather than military officers, possessed ultimate authority. Washington was a firm republican, believing that the people are sovereign and that no one should ever come to power in America because of military force, or because of birth in a noble family. At the time of Washington's departure from military service, he was listed on the rolls of the Continental Army as "General and Commander in Chief." (See Retirement, death, and honors section below for more on this topic.) Although the world was at peace in the late 1780s, Washington worried that the fledling nation had such a weak central government that it could not survive a future war. He therefore endorsed plans to create a new constitution. His support guaranteed it would happen and he presided over the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in 1787. For the most part he did not participate in the debates involved, but his prestige was great enough to maintain collegiality and to keep the delegates at their labors. He adamantly enforced the secrecy adopted by the Convention during the summer. Many believe that the Framers created the Presidency with Washington in mind. After the Convention, his support convinced many, including the Virginia legislature, to support the Constitution. Washington farmed roughly 8,000 acres (32 km²). Like many Virginia planters at the time, he was frequently in debt and never had much cash on hand. In fact, he had to borrow $600 to relocate to New York, then the center of the American government, to take office as president. In 1788–1789, George Washington was elected the first President of the United States. The First U.S. Congress voted to pay Washington a salary of $25,000 a year—a significant sum in 1789. Washington, the wealthiest individual in the nation at the time and whose wealth (all of it in land that could eventually be sold) by some estimates exceeded $500 million in current dollars (as of 2005), refused to accept his salary.

Presidency

Main article: Washington AdministrationWashington Administration]] George Washington was elected unanimously by the Electoral College in 1789, and remains the only person ever to be elected president unanimously (a feat which he duplicated in 1792). As runner-up with 34 votes, John Adams became Vice President-elect. In 1791 Congress imposed an excise tax on distilled spirits, leading to protests. By 1794, after Washington ordered the protesters to appear in U.S. district court, the protests turning into full-scale riots, and outright rebellion. Washington raised an army, and marched at its head into the rebellious districts. There was no fighting, but Washington's forceful action proved the new government could protect itself. After two terms, Washington issued his "Farewell Adress" (actually a letter), and refused to run for a third term in office. This precedent of two terms was only to be broken successfully by Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 1940 and 1944.

Cabinet

Supreme Court appointments

As the first President, Washington appointed the entire Supreme Court, a feat almost repeated by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt during his four terms in office (1933–45). Washington appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States:
- John Jay - Chief Justice - 1789
- James Wilson - 1789
- John Rutledge - 1790
- William Cushing - 1790
- John Blair - 1790
- James Iredell - 1790
- Thomas Johnson - 1792
- William Paterson - 1793
- John Rutledge - Chief Justice, 1795 (an associate justice since 1790)
- Samuel Chase - 1796
- Oliver Ellsworth - Chief Justice - 1796

Major Presidential Acts

- Signed Judiciary Act of 1789
- Signed Indian Intercourse Acts, starting in 1790
- Signed Residence Act of 1790
- Signed Bank Act of 1791
- Signed Coinage Act of 1792 or Mint Act
- Signed Fugitive Slave Act of 1793
- Signed Naval Act of 1794

States admitted to the Union

- North Carolina (1789)
- Rhode Island (1790)
- Vermont (1791)
- Kentucky (1792)
- Tennessee (1796)

Retirement, death, and honors

Tennessee The Apotheosis of Washington is found in the rotunda of the United States Capitol]] After retiring from the presidency in March 1797, Washington returned to Mount Vernon with a profound sense of relief. He established a distillery there and became probably the largest distiller of whiskey in the nation at the time. In 1798 his distillery produced 11,000 gallons of whiskey and a profit of $7,500. During that year, Washington was appointed Lieutenant General in the United States Army (then the highest possible rank) by President John Adams. Washington's appointment was to serve as a warning to France, with which war seemed imminent. Washington never saw active service, however, and upon his death one year later the U.S. Army rolls listed him as a retired Lieutenant General, which was then considered the equivalent to his rank as General and Commander in Chief during the Revolutionary War. Within a year of this 1798 appointment, Washington fell ill from a bad cold with a fever and a sore throat that turned into acute laryngitis and pneumonia and died on December 14 1799, at his home. Modern doctors believe that Washington died from either a streptococcal infection of the throat or, since he was bled as part of the treatment, a combination of shock from the loss of blood, asphyxia, and dehydration. One of the physicians who administered bloodletting to him was Dr. James Craik, one of Washington's closest friends, who had been with Washington at Fort Necessity, the Braddock expedition, and throughout the Revolutionary War. Washington's remains were buried in a family graveyard at Mount Vernon. Congressman Henry Light Horse Harry Lee, a Revolutionary War comrade, famously eulogized Washington as "a citizen, first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen." With the exception of Dwight Eisenhower, who held a lifetime commission as General of the Army (five star), George Washington is the only President with military service to reenter the military after leaving the office of President. Even though he had been the highest-ranking officer of the Revolutionary War, having in 1798 been appointed a Lieutenant General (now three stars), it seemed, somewhat incongruously, that all later full (that is, four star) generals in U.S. history (starting with General Ulysses S. Grant), and also all five-star generals of the Army, were considered to outrank Washington. General John J. Pershing had attained an even higher rank of six-star general, General of the Armies (above five star—though the most stars Pershing actually ever wore were four). This issue was resolved in 1976 when Washington was, by Act of Congress, posthumously promoted to the rank of General of the Armies, outranking any past, present, and future general, and declared to permanently be the top-ranked military officer of the United States. [https://www.perscom.army.mil/tagd/tioh/rank/goa.htm]

Summary of Military Career

- 1753: Commissioned Lieutenant Colonel of the Virginia Militia
- 1754: Led abortive expedition to Fort Duquesne, later served as aide to General Edward Braddock
- 1755: Promoted to Colonel and named Commander of all Virginia Forces. Commissioned a Brigadier General later that year
- 1758–75: Retired from active military service
- June 1775: Commissioned General and Commander in Chief of the Continental Army
- 1775–81: Commands the Continental Army in over seven major battles with the British
- December 1783: Resigns commission as Commander in Chief of the Army
- July 1798: Appointed Lieutenant General and Commander of the Provisional Army to be raised in the event of a war with France
- 14 December 1799: Dies and is listed as a Lieutenant General (r) on the U.S. Army rolls
- 19 January 1976: Approved by the United States Congress for promotion to General of the Armies
- 11 October 1976: Declared the senior most U.S. military officer for all time by Presidential Order of Gerald Ford
- 13 March 1978: Promoted by Army Order 31-3 to General of the Armies with effective date of rank July 4, 1776

Personal information

Gerald Ford Admirers of Washington circulated an apocryphal story about his honesty as a child. In the story, he wanted to try out a new axe, so he chopped down his father's cherry tree; when questioned by his father, he gave the famous non-quotation: "I cannot tell a lie. It was I who chopped down the cherry tree.". The story first appeared after Washington's death in a naïve "inspirational" children's book by Parson Mason Weems, who had been rector of the Mount Vernon parish (See also George Washington's axe for an elaboration of this story). Parson Weems also fabricated a famous story about Washington praying for help in a lonely spot in the woods near Valley Forge. Nevertheless, Washington was a man of great personal integrity, with a deeply held sense of duty, honor and patriotism. He was courageous and farsighted, holding the Continental Army together through eight hard years of war and numerous privations, sometimes by sheer force of will. Because of Washington's involvement in Freemasonry, some publicly visible collections of Washington memorabilia are maintained by Masonic lodges, most notably the George Washington Masonic Memorial in Alexandria, Virginia. The museum at Fraunces Tavern Museum in New York City includes specimens of Washington's false teeth. Washington was notable for his modesty and carefully controlled ambition. He never accepted pay during his military service, and was genuinely reluctant to assume any of the offices thrust upon him. When John Adams recommended him to the Continental Congress for the position of general and commander in chief of the Continental Army, Washington left the room to allow any dissenters to freely voice their objections. In later accepting the post, Washington told the Congress that he was unworthy of the honor. However, it should be reminded that Washington was always an ambitious man. He ensured that during the Continental Congress he arrived and was always present wearing his old colonial uniform so as to make it clear to all that he was deeply interested in commanding the continental troops. Congress actually made him the commander of the continental army before they authorized an army for him to command. In reality, no one else could have ensured that the southern colonies would assist the northern ones unless Washington was part of the equation; aside from a few other, less endearing leaders, Washington was likely, overall, the only choice that would achieve this. It is often said that one of Washington's greatest achievements was refraining from taking more power than was due. He was conscientious of maintaining a good reputation by avoiding political intrigue. He had no interest in nepotism or cronyism, rejecting, for example, a military promotion during the war for his deserving cousin William Washington lest it be regarded as favoritism. Thomas Jefferson wrote, "The moderation and virtue of a single character probably prevented this Revolution from being closed, as most others have been, by a subversion of that liberty it was intended to establish." Washington had to be talked into a second term of office as President, and very reluctantly agreed to it. However, he refused to serve a third term, setting a precedent that held until the Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt. At John Adams's inauguration, Washington is said to have approached Adams afterwards and stated "Well, I am fairly out and you are fairly in. Now we shall see who enjoys it the most!" Washington also declined to leave the room before Adams and the new Vice President of the United States, Thomas Jefferson, establishing the principle that even a former president is only, in the end, a private citizen.

Trivia

- A popular belief is that Washington wore a wig, as was the fashion among some at the time. He did not. He did, however, powder his hair, as represented in several portraits, including the well-known unfinished Gilbert Stuart [http://www.npg.si.edu/cexh/stuart/athen1.htm depiction].
- A number of younger men were essentially surrogate sons to the childless Washington, including Alexander Hamilton, Lafayette, Nathanael Greene, and George W. P. Custis, Washington's step-grandson. George Custis' daughter Mary would eventually become the wife of General Robert E. Lee.
- Washington was a cricket enthusiast and was known to have played the sport, which was popular at that time in the British colonies.
- Through his father's family, Washington was a direct descendant of King Edward III and William the Conqueror of England.
- One story about Washington has him throwing a silver dollar across the Potomac River. He may have thrown an object across the Rappahannock River, the river on which his childhood home, Ferry Farm, stood. However, the Potomac is over a mile wide at Mount Vernon. Also silver dollars did not exist then.
- Grew hemp, a common crop at the time used for fiber production, specifically to make rope. [http://www.stanford.edu/~johnbrks/theCafe/substance/marijuana.html]

Washington and slavery

Washington owned many slaves throughout his life, as did most of his peers in the Virginia plantation aristocracy. He was noteworthy, however, for the humane treatment of his slaves and for his growing unease with the "peculiar institution". Historian Roger Bruns has written, "As he grew older, he became increasingly aware that it was immoral and unjust. Long before the Revolution, Washington had taken the unusual position of refusing to sell any of his slaves or to allow slave families to be separated." After the Revolution, Washington told an English friend, "I clearly foresee that nothing but the rooting out of slavery can perpetuate the existence of our [Federal] union by consolidating it on a common bond of principle." He wrote to his friend John Francis Mercer in 1786, "I never mean... to possess another slave by purchase; it being among my first wishes to see some plan adopted, by which slavery in this country may be abolished by slow, sure, and imperceptible degrees." Ten years later, he wrote to Robert Morris, "There is not a man living who wishes more sincerely than I do to see some plan adopted for the gradual abolition [of slavery]." abolition As President, Washington was mindful of the risk of splitting apart the young republic over the question of slavery. He did not advocate the abolition of slavery while in office, but did sign legislation enforcing the prohibition of slavery in the Northwest Territory, writing to his good friend the Marquis de la Fayette that he considered it a wise measure. Lafayette urged him to free his slaves as an example to others— Washington was held in such high regard after the revolution that there was reason to hope that if he freed his slaves, others would follow his example. Lafayette purchased an estate in French Guiana and settled his own slaves there, and he offered a place for Washington's slaves, writing "I would never have drawn my sword in the cause of America if I could have conceived thereby that I was founding a land of slavery." Nevertheless, Washington did not free his own slaves in his lifetime. Washington included provisions in his will which freed his slaves upon his death. His widow Martha freed those she owned shortly before she died. As cited in Henry Wiencek's Imperfect God: George Washington, His Slaves, and the Creation of America, one of his slaves, Oney Judge Staines, escaped the Executive Mansion in Philadelphia in 1796 and lived the rest of her life free in New Hampshire.

Religious beliefs

Washington's religious views are a matter of some controversy. There is considerable evidence that he (like a number of Founding Fathers of the United States) was a Deist—believing in God but not believing in revelation or miracles. Before the Revolution, when the Episcopal Church was still the state religion in Virginia, he served as a vestryman (lay officer) for his local church. He spoke often of the value of prayer, righteousness, and seeking and offering thanks for the "blessings of Heaven". He sometimes accompanied his wife to Christian church services; however there is no record of his ever becoming a communicant in any Christian church, and he would regularly leave services before communion—with the other non-communicants. When Rev. Dr. James Abercrombie, rector of St. Peter's Episcopal Church in Philadelphia, mentioned in a weekly sermon that those in elevated stations set an unhappy example by leaving at communion, Washington ceased attending at all on communion Sundays. Long after Washington died, asked about Washington's beliefs, Abercrombie replied: "Sir, Washington was a Deist!" His adopted daughter, Eleanor Parke Custis Lewis, and several others have said, however, that he was, indeed, a Christian. Various prayers said to have been composed by him in his later life are highly edited. He did not ask for any clergy on his deathbed, though one was available. His funeral services were those of the Freemasons at the request of his wife, Martha. Washington was an early supporter of religious pluralism. In 1775 he ordered that his troops not burn the pope in effigy on Guy Fawkes Night. In 1790 he wrote to Jewish leaders that he envisioned a country "which gives to bigotry no sanction, to persecution no assistance.... May the Children of the Stock of Abraham, who dwell in this land, continue to merit and enjoy the good will of the other Inhabitants; while every one shall sit under his own vine and fig tree, and there shall be none to make him afraid."

Legacy

Abraham, site of Washington's first inauguration as President]] Washington peacefully relinquished the presidency to John Adams after serving two terms in office. This is seen as one of Washington's most important legacies. Referring to this act, George III, the King of England defeated during the Revolution, called him "the greatest character of the age" and Napoleon complained "They wanted me to be another Washington". All presidents since Washington followed the custom of limiting their service in office to two terms, until Franklin Delano Roosevelt, who was elected four times (1932, 1936, 1940, 1944). The Constitution was subsequently amended by the Twenty-second Amendment to set an express two-term limit upon future presidents. Washington set many other precedents that established tranquility in the presidential office in the years to come and is generally regarded by historians as one of the greatest presidents. He was also lauded posthumously as the "Father of His Country" and is often considered to be the most important of the United States' "Founding Fathers". He has gained fame around the world as a quintessential example of a benevolent national founder. Americans often refer to men in other nations considered the Father of their Country as "the George Washington of his nation" (for example, Mahatma Gandhi's role in India). Washington was ranked #26 in Michael H. Hart's list of the most influential figures in history.

Monuments and memorials

Today Washington's face and image are often used as national symbols of the United States, along with the icons such as the flag and great seal. Perhaps the most pervasive commemoration of his legacy is the use of his image on the one dollar bill and the quarter-dollar coin. The image used on the dollar bill is derived from a famous portrait of him painted by Gilbert Stuart, itself one of the most notable works of early American art. The capital city of the United States, Washington, D.C., is named for him. The District of Columbia was created by an Act of Congress in 1790, and Washington was deeply involved in its creation, including the siting of the White House. The Washington Monument, one of the most well-known landmarks in the city, was built in his honor. The George Washington University, also in D.C., was named after him, and it was founded in part with shares Washington bequeathed to an endowment to create a national university in Washington. The only state named for a president is the state of Washington in the U.S. Pacific Northwest. Washington selected West Point, New York, as the site for the United States Military Academy. The United States Navy has named three ships after Washington. Other examples include the George Washington Bridge, which extends between New York City and New Jersey, and the palm tree genus Washingtonia is also named after him. See also:List of places named for George Washington List of places named for George Washington

Scholarly Secondary Sources

The literature on George Washington is immense. The Library of Congress has a comprehensive bibliography [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/gwhtml/gwbib.html online]. Notable recent works include:
- Anderson, Fred 2000. [http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/a/anderson-war.html?oref=login Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754-1766].
- Comora, Madeleine & Deborah Chandra. George Washington's Teeth. Illustrated by Brock Cole. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2003; ISBN 0374325340. A lighthearted chronicle of his dental struggles, aimed at children and adults.
- Ellis, Joseph J.His Excellency: George Washington. New York: Knopf, 2004. ISBN 1400040310. Powerful interpretation of Washington's career.
- Elkins, Stanley M. and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism. (1994), the leading scholarly history of the 1790s.
- Ferling, John E. The First of Men: A Life of George Washington (1989), solid and scholarly.
- Fisher, David Hackett. Washington's Crossing. (2004), prize-winning military history focused on 1775-1776.
- Flexner, James Thomas. Washington: The Indispensable Man. Boston: Little, Brown, 1974. ISBN 0316286168 (1994 reissue). Single-volume condensation of Flexner's popular four-volume biography.
- Freeman, Douglas. S. Washington: An abridgement in one volume by Richard Harwell of the seven-volume George Washington by Douglas Southall Freeman (1968), the standard scholarly biography.
- Grizzard, Frank E., Jr. George! A Guide to All Things Washington. Buena Vista and Charlottesville, VA: Mariner Publishing. 2005. ISBN 0-9768238-0-2. Grizzard is a leading scholar of Washington.
- Grizzard, Frank E., Jr. The Ways of Providence: Religion and George Washington. Buena Vista and Charlottesville, VA: Mariner Publishing. 2005. ISBN 0-9768238-1-0.
- Lengel, Edward G. General George Washington: A Military Life. New York: Random House, 2005. ISBN 1400060818.
- [Lodge, Henry Cabot]. George Washington (vol 2, 1899 covers 1783-99) [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12653 online at Project Gutenberg] old but generally accurate. Freeman and Flexner are much better.
- McDonald, Forrest . The Presidency of George Washington. (1988), Intellectual history showing Washington as exemplar of republicanism.
- Wiencek, Henry. An Imperfect God: George Washington, His Slaves, and the Creation of America. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2003. ISBN 0374175268.
- Nash, Gary B. The Unknown American Revolution: The Unruly Birth of Democracy and the Struggle to Create America. Viking, 2005. ISBN 0670034207. A left-wing interpretation of the era, with little on Washington.

Notes

#The earliest known image in which Washington is identified as such is on the cover of the circa 1778 Pennsylvania German almanac (Lancaster: Gedruckt bey Francis Bailey). This identifies Washington as "Landes Vater" or Father of the Land.

External links

- [http://gwpapers.virginia.edu/] Full version of the on-line Papers of George Washington and other information from the University of Virginia
- [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/washpap.htm The Papers of George Washington] from the Avalon Project (includes Inaugural Addresses, State of the Union Messages, and other materials)
- [http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/commission.html Library of Congress: Washington's Commission as Commander in Chief]
- [http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/democrac/49.htm Farewell Address]
- [http://www.libraryreference.org/washington.html Biography of George Washington]
- [http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~jamesdow/s004/f647706.htm A pedigree of George Washington]
- [http://www.ericdigests.org/1999-2/washington.htm Teaching about George Washington]
- [http://www.thirty-thousand.org/pages/section_IB5.htm The First Presidential Veto] Analysis of the first veto by a U.S. President
- [https://www.perscom.army.mil/tagd/tioh/rank/goa.htm General Washington's military rank]
- [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/gw1.html White House Biography]
- [http://www.chicago-scots.org/clubs/History/Names-U-Z.htm]
-
- [http://www.archontology.org/nations/us/us2/washington.php George Washington: Archontology.org, chronology, dates, terms, election results]

State of the Union Address

:Alternative meanings in State of the Union (disambiguation) The State of the Union Address is an annual event in which the President of the United States reports on the status of the country, normally to a joint session of the U.S. Congress (the House of Representatives and the Senate). The address is also used to outline the President's legislative proposals for the upcoming year. It has occurred in January except for 6 occasions in February since 1934. Senate]] Modeled after the Speech from the Throne, the requirement for the address is written into the United States Constitution: :"The President shall from time to time give to Congress information of the State of the Union and recommend to their Consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient." (Article II, Section 3) This requirement does not specify the address's form, frequency, or depth of information. Although all Presidents have given an annual message, its form has changed over time.

History

George Washington gave the first state of the union address on January 8, 1790 in New York City, then the provisional U.S. capital. In 1801, Thomas Jefferson discontinued the practice of delivering the address in person, regarding it as too monarchial (similar to the Queen's Speech). Instead, the address was written and then sent to Congress to be read by a clerk until 1913 when Woodrow Wilson re-established the practice despite some initial controversy. However, there have been exceptions to this rule. Presidents during the latter half of the 20th Century have sent written State of the Union addresses. The last President to do this was Jimmy Carter in 1981. [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/sou.php]. For many years, the speech was referred to as "the President's Annual Message to Congress." The actual term "State of the Union" did not become widely used until after 1935 when Franklin D. Roosevelt began using the phrase. Prior to 1934 the annual message was delivered in December. The ratification of Amendment XX on January 23, 1933 changed the opening of Congress from early March to early January, affecting the delivery of the annual message. Since 1934, the message or address has been delivered to Congress in January or February. Today, the speech is typically delivered on the last Tuesday in January, although there is no such provision written in law, and it varies from year to year. Calvin Coolidge's 1923 speech was the first to be broadcast on radio. Harry S. Truman's 1947 address was the first to be broadcast on television. Lyndon Johnson's address in 1965 was the first delivered in the evening. Bill Clinton gave his 1999 address while his impeachment trial was underway. George W. Bush's 2002 address was the first broadcast available live on the world wide web. Ronald Reagan was the only president to have postponed his State of the Union address. On January 28, 1986, he planned to give his address, but after learning that the Challengerexploded, he postponed it for a week and addressed the nation on the day's events.

The speech

In the State of the Union the President traditionally outlines the administration's accomplishments over the previous year, as well as the agenda for the coming year in upbeat and optimistic terms. At some point during the speech, the President usually says "The State of our Union is strong" or a very similar phrase. In recent years it has also become common for the President to acknowledge special guests sitting near the First Lady in the gallery, such as everyday Americans or visiting Heads of State. The guests are usually relevant to some part of the President's speech. (See: Lenny Skutnicks) The President's presence upon entering the House chamber is ceremoniously announced by the Doorkeeper of the House of Representatives, who calls out, "Mr. Speaker, the President of the United States!" The President enters the chamber to a standing ovation and spends several minutes greeting members of Congress and walking toward the podium at the front and center of the House chamber. Once there, the President hands copies of the address to the Vice President of the United States (as President of the Senate) and the Speaker of the House of Representatives, both of whom sit behind the President for the duration of the speech. If either is unavailable, the next highest-ranking member of the respective house substitutes. Sitting near the front of the chamber are the members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the Justices of the Supreme Court, and the members of the President's Cabinet. Customarily, one cabinet member (the designated survivor) does not attend, in order to provide continuity in the line of succession in the event that a catastrophe disables the President, the Vice President, and other succeeding officers gathered in the House chamber. Additionally, since the September 11, 2001 attacks, a few members of Congress have been asked to relocate to undisclosed locations for the duration of the speech. Once the chamber settles down from the President's arrival and the attendees take their seats, the Speaker taps the gavel and officially presents the President to the joint session of Congress by saying something similar to the following: "Members of Congress, I have the high privilege and distinct honor of presenting to you the President of the United States." Another standing ovation commences before the President finally begins the address. The President delivers the speech (with the aid of dual teleprompters) from the podium at the front of the House chamber. State of the Union speeches usually last a little over an hour. Part of the length of the speech is due to the large amounts of applause that occur from the audience throughout. The applause is somewhat political in tone, with many portions of the speech only being applauded by members of the President's own party. Applause indicates support, while applause with a standing ovation indicates enthusiastic support. However, all join in the ovations that occur before the speech begins, because by tradition it is the office being applauded and not the person holding it (and, in fact, the President is never introduced by name).

The opposition response to the speech

Since 1966, the speech has been followed by a response or rebuttal from members of the political party opposing the President's. The response is typically broadcast from a studio with no audience. This is the norm, but not the rule. In 1997, former Oklahoma congressman J.C. Watts delivered the Republican response to that year's speech in front of high school students sponsored by the Close-Up Foundation. [http://www.arg-media.com/articles/domestic/dom43.htm]. In 2004, the Democrats delivered a response to that year's State of the Union in Spanish. It was delivered by New Mexico Governor Bill Richardson. [http://www.dfw.com/mld/startelegram/news/state/7756716.htm?1c]

External links

- [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/sou.php The American Presidency Project (UC Santa Barbara: 52,000+ Presidential Documents)]
- [http://www.c-span.org/executive/stateoftheunion.asp C-SPAN State of the Union videos and transcripts] (since 1945)
- [http://www.whitehouse.gov/stateoftheunion/ White House coverage]
- http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/5050 Text file of state of the union addresses from 1790-2001
- [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/ State of the Union Addresses of the American Presidents] (1790-2004) Category:Executive Branch of the United States Government Category:State of the Union ja:一般教書演説

January 30

January 30 is the 30th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. There are 335 days remaining, (336 in leap years).

Events

- 1648 - The Treaty of Münster is signed, ending the Eighty Years' War between the Netherlands and Spain.
- 1649 - King Charles I of England is beheaded.
- 1661 -Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England is formally executed- after having been dead for two years.
- 1790 - The first boat specialized as a lifeboat is tested on the River Tyne.
- 1820 - Edward Bransfield lands on the Antarctic mainland.
- 1835 - A mentally ill man named Richard Lawrence attempts to assassinate President Andrew Jackson in the United States Capitol -- the first assassination attempt against a President. Both of Lawrence's pistols misfire, and Jackson proceeds to beat his would-be assassin with his cane.
- 1847 - Yerba Buena, California is renamed San Francisco.
- 1862 - The first American ironclad warship, the USS Monitor is launched.
- 1889 - Archduke Crown Prince Rudolf of Austria, heir to the Austro-Hungarian crown, was found dead with his mistress Baroness Mary Vetsera in Mayerling. How they died remains a mystery.
- 1900 - United Kingdom forces fighting Boers in South Africa ask for reinforcements.
- 1911 - The destroyer USS Terry makes the first airplane rescue at sea saving the life of James McCurdy 10 miles from Havana, Cuba.
- 1911 - The Canadian Naval Service becomes the Royal Canadian Navy.
- 1913 - House of Lords rejects Irish Home Rule Bill.
- 1925 - Government of Turkey throws Patriarch Constantine VI out of Istanbul.
- 1933 - Adolf Hitler is sworn in as Chancellor of Germany.
- 1933 - The first of 2,956 episodes of The Lone Ranger radio series airs on station WXYZ in Detroit, Michigan.
- 1944 - United States troops invade Majuro, Marshall Islands.
- 1945 - KdF Ship Wilhelm Gustloff sunk in the Baltic Sea - deadliest maritime disaster in known history killing roughly 9,000.
- 1948 - Indian pacifist and leader Mahatma Gandhi is murdered by a Hindu extremist.
- 1948 - 1948 Winter Olympics open in St. Moritz, Switzerland.
- 1962 - Two of the high-wire Flying Wallendas are killed when their famous seven-person pyramid collapses during a performance in Detroit, Michigan.
- 1964 - Ranger 6 is launched by NASA. Its mission is to carry television cameras and to crash-land on the moon.
- 1968 - Vietnam War: The Tet Offensive begins when Viet Cong forces launch series of a surprise attacks in South Vietnam.
- 1969 - The Beatles' last public performance, on the roof of Apple Records. The impromptu concert was broken up by the police.
- 1972 - Bloody Sunday: United Kingdom British Paratroopers murder fourteen Roman Catholic civil rights /anti internment marchers in Northern Ireland- Bloody Sunday (1972)
- 1972 - Pakistan withdraws from the British Commonwealth.
- 1975 - First faroese stamp issued
- 1980 - Australian Sitcom Kingswood Country starts on ATN-7.
- 1983 - Super Bowl XVII: The Washington Redskins defeat the Miami Dolphins, 27-17, thus winning their first NFL championship since 1942.
- 1989 - The American embassy in Kabul, Afghanistan closes.
- 1994 - Péter Lékó becomes the youngest grand master in chess.
- 1994 - The Dallas Cowboys win their fourth Super Bowl title, 30-13 over the Buffalo Bills in Super Bowl XXVIII.
- 1995 - Workers from the National Institutes of Health announce the success of clinical trials testing the first preventive treatment for sickle-cell disease.
- 1996 - Suspected leader of the Irish National Liberation Army Gino Gallagher is killed while in line for his unemployment benefit.
- 1999 - A 7-year old boy dies of choking on a Pokémon Power Bouncer ball toy.
- 2000 - Off the coast of Côte d'Ivoire, Kenya Airways Flight 431 crashes into the Atlantic Ocean, killing 169.
- 2000 - In a dramatic finish to Super Bowl XXXIV, the St. Louis Rams defeat the Tennessee Titans, 23-16.
- 2002 - Slobodan Milošević accuses the United Nations war crimes tribunal of an "evil and hostile attack" against him.
- 2003 - Belgium legally recognizes same-sex marriage.
- 2005 - Amid violence and threats to boycott the results, Iraq holds an election for its National Assembly, the country's first free election since 1953.

Births

- 133 - Marcus Severus Didius Julianus, Roman Emperor (d.193)
- 1505 - Thomas Tallis, English composer (d. 1585)
- 1563 - Franciscus Gomarus, Dutch theologian (d. 1641)
- 1615 - Thomas Rolfe, American colonial settler
- 1661 - Charles Rollin, French historian (d. 1741)
- 1687 - Johann Balthasar Neumann, German architect (d. 1753)
- 1697 - Johann Joachim Quantz, German flutist and composer (d. 1773)
- 1720 - Charles De Geer, Swedish industrialist and entomologist (d. 1778)
- 1754 - John Lansing, Jr., American statesman (d. 1829)
- 1781 - Adelbert von Chamisso, German writer (d. 1838)
- 1841 - Félix Faure, President of France (d. 1899)
- 1861 - Charles Martin Loeffler, German-born composer (d. 1935)
- 1878 - Anton Hansen Tammsaare, Estonian author (d. 1940)
- 1882 - Franklin D. Roosevelt, President of the United States (d. 1945)
- 1894 - King Boris III of Bulgaria (d. 1943)
- 1899 - Max Theiler, South African virologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1972)
- 1901 - Rudolf Caracciola, German race car driver (d. 1959)
- 1902 - Nikolaus Pevsner, German-born art historian (d. 1983)
- 1910 - C Subramaniam, Indian politician (d. 2000)
- 1911 - Roy Eldridge, American musician (d. 1989)
- 1912 - Barbara W. Tuchman, American historian (d. 1989)
- 1914 - John Ireland, Canadian actor (d. 1992)
- 1915 - Joachim Peiper, German military leader (d. 1976)
- 1915 - John Profumo, British cabinet minister
- 1920 - Delbert Mann, American director
- 1922 - Dick Martin, American comedian
- 1924 - Lloyd Alexander, American writer
- 1925 - Douglas Engelbart, American computer scientist
- 1925 - Dorothy Malone, American actress
- 1927 - Olof Palme, Prime Minister of Sweden (d. 1986)
- 1928 - Hal Prince, American stage producer and director
- 1930 - Samuel J. Byck, American attempted assassin of Richard Nixon
- 1930 - Gene Hackman, American actor
- 1930 - Magnus Malan, South African politician
- 1931 - Allan W. Eckert, American historian, naturalist, and author
- 1931 - Shirley Hazzard, Australian-born author
- 1932 - Knock Yokoyama, Japanese comedian and politician
- 1933 - Louis Rukeyser, American journalist
- 1935 - Richard Brautigan, American writer and poet (d. 1984)
- 1937 - Vanessa Redgrave, English actress
- 1937 - Boris Spassky, Russian chess player
- 1939 - Alejandro Toledo, President of Peru
- 1941 - Gregory Benford, American author and scientist
- 1941 - Dick Cheney, Vice President of the United States
- 1943 - Marty Balin, American musician
- 1945 - Michael Dorris, American author (d. 1997)
- 1947 - Les Barker, English poet
- 1947 - Steve Marriott, English musician (The Small Faces) (d. 1991)
- 1948 - Nick Broomfield, British actor
- 1949 - Peter Agre, American biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
- 1951 - Phil Collins, English musician
- 1951 - Charles S. Dutton, American actor
- 1955 - Judith Tarr, American author
- 1957 - Payne Stewart, American golfer (d. 1999)
- 1959 - Jody Watley, American singer
- 1962 - Mary Kay Letourneau, American teacher
- 1974 - Christian Bale, Welsh actor
- 1976 - Andy Milonakis, American comedian
- 1980 - Wilmer Valderrama, American actor
- 1981 - Dimitar Berbatov, Bulgarian football player
- 1981 - Peter Crouch, English footballer
- 1990 - Jake Thomas, American actor

Deaths

- 1030 - William V, Duke of Aquitaine (b. 969)
- 1181 - Emperor Takakura of Japan (b. 1161)
- 1384 - Louis II of Flanders (b. 1330)
- 1574 - Damião de Góis, Portuguese philosopher (b. 1502)
- 1606 - Everard Digby, English conspirator (b. 1578)
- 1649 - King Charles I of England (executed) (b. 1600)
- 1836 - Betsy Ross, American seamstress (b. 1752)
- 1858 - Coenraad Jacob Temminck, Dutch zoologist (b. 1778)
- 1867 - Emperor Komei of Japan (b. 1831)
- 1889 - Crown Prince Rudolph of Austria (b. 1858)
- 1926 - Barbara La Marr, American actress (b. 1896)
- 1928 - Johannes Andreas Grib Fibiger, Danish scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1867)
- 1948 - Mohandas Gandhi, Indian politician (b. 1869)
- 1948 - Orville Wright, American aviation pioneer (b. 1871)
- 1951 - Ferdinand Porsche, Austrian automotive engineer (b. 1875)
- 1958 - Jean Crotti, Swiss artist (b. 1878)
- 1962 - Manuel de Abreu, Brazilian physician (b. 1894)
- 1963 - Francis Poulenc, French composer (b. 1899)
- 1969 - Georges Pire, Belgian monk, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1910)
- 1980 - Professor Longhair, American musician (b. 1918)
- 1982 - Lightnin' Hopkins, American musician (b. 1912)
- 1991 - John Bardeen, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1908)
- 1991 - John McIntire, American actor (b. 1907)
- 1994 - Pierre Boulle, French author (b. 1912)
- 1995 - Gerald Durrell, British naturalist, zookeeper, author, and television presenter (b. 1925)
- 1999 - Huntz Hall, American actor (b. 1919)
- 1999 - Ed Herlihy, American writer (b. 1909)
- 2001 - Jean-Pierre Aumont, French actor (b. 1911)

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/30 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.tnl.net/when/1/30 Today in History: January 30] ---- January 29 - January 31 - December 30 — listing of all days ko:1월 30일 ms:30 Januari ja:1月30日 simple:January 30 th:30 มกราคม

Lifeboat

For the 1944 movie, see Lifeboat (film). A lifeboat is a boat carried on board a ship and designed to allow passengers to escape, or a boat kept on land or in a harbour to rescue people in trouble at sea. Lifeboats are also kept at offshore platforms. As such, it is an elaborate version of a life raft. Lifeboats were historically rigid structures built with highly buoyant materials. More recently however, life rafts are inflatable, equipped with auto-inflation carbon dioxide canisters or mechanical pumps, and split into partitions, so that they are much less subject to the adverse effects of exposure to sea water and sunlight. A quick release and pressure release mechanism is fitted so that the canister or pump automatically inflates the lifeboat, and the lifeboat breaks free of the sinking vessel. sunlight The first boat specialized as a lifeboat was tested on the River Tyne on January 29, 1790. William Wouldhave and Lionel Lukin both claimed to be the inventor of the first Lifeboat. In the following years there were many ingenious boats designed to carry as many men as possible with as small as crew as was necessary - a difficult task without the benefit of engine power. One example of this kind of experiment was the Landguard Fort Lifeboat of 1821, designed by Richard Hall Gower.

Ship-launched lifeboats

These are large whaleboats designed to be lowered from davits on a ship's deck. They are designed to be unsinkable, with buoyancy that cannot be damaged. They have a cover that can be erected to form a storm shelter and sunshade. The cover can usually collect rainwater, and is visible from the air against the ocean. They usually carry flares and mirrors for signaling, three days of food and water, oars, an engine, heater and basic navigational equipment. The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) and the International Life-Saving Appliance Code (LSA) require a specific list of emergency equipment to be carried on each lifeboat and liferaft used on international voyages. Modern lifeboats should also carry an emergency position-indicating rescue beacon and either a radar reflector or search and rescue radar transponder. Traditionally, lifeboats for passages in the Pacific or Indian Oceans were thought unsafe unless they permitted self-rescue. Thus these traditionally included sailing equipment, navigational equipment, solar water stills, rainwater catchments and fishing equipment. Lifeboats for the North Sea include an electric heater for the engine oil, which is left on in cold weather. A very commonly used lifeboat in modern times is a 25-man inflatable; in the United States Navy it is named the Mark 6. The lifeboat is compact and made of separate compartments, or tubes, as a redundancy against puncture. Carbon dioxide canisters and hand pump facilitate inflation of the vessel. A built-in canopy is often included as part of a lifeboat against harsh weather. Lifeboats furthermore carry essential survival gear, including food, water, de-salter kits, bags, sea dye, first aid kits, fishing kits, light/smoke distress signals (Mark 13), and heliograph mirrors. Most yachts carry lifeboats in some form. Some use dual-purpose dinghies, often with the express plan of self-rescue, while others use inflatable life-rafts. The equipment and arrangements are very similar to larger commercial lifeboats.

Origins of the lifeboats onboard ships

dinghies; note the "face mask" over the front windows, and the rolled-up tarp that can be brought down over the entry port to make the boat watertight]] By the turn of the 20th Century larger ships meant more people could travel, but safety rules in regard with lifeboats stayed out of date. It was after the sinking of the RMS Titanic on April 15, 1912, that a movement began to require a sufficient number of lifeboats on passenger ships for all people on board. The need for so many more lifeboats on the decks of passenger ships after 1912 led to the use of most of the deck space available even on the large ships, creating the problem of restricted passageways. This was resolved by the introduction of collapsible lifeboats, a number of which had been installed on the Titanic (see Birthon Boat Company). The ship's tenders of modern cruise ships are often designed to double as lifeboats. Also see the discussion in dinghy and liferaft.

Modern life boats

Modern motor life boats (MLB) originated as life boats that had been modified with the addition of a engine and provided more power to get in and out of the swell area inside the surf. They can be launched from shore in any weather and perform rescues further distances out. Older lifeboats relied on sails and oars, which are slower and dependent on wind conditions or manpower. Both types remain in use. All lifeboats of this type generally have modern electronic devices such as radios and radar to help locate the party in distress and carry medical and food supplies for the survivors. radar The MLB was initially developed by the

1790

Events

Ongoing events

Births

Deaths

Common year starting on Friday

George Washington

Early life

French and Indian War and afterwards

American Revolution

Activities between Revolution and Presidency

Presidency

Cabinet

Supreme Court appointments

Major Presidential Acts

States admitted to the Union

Retirement, death, and honors

Summary of Military Career

Personal information

Trivia

Washington and slavery

Religious beliefs

Legacy

Monuments and memorials

Scholarly Secondary Sources

See also

Notes

External links

Further Reading

State of the Union Address

History

The speech

The opposition response to the speech

See also

External links

January 30

Events

Births

Deaths

External links

Lifeboat

Ship-launched lifeboats

Origins of the lifeboats onboard ships

Modern life boats