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1632

1632

:See also: 1632 (novel)

Events

- February 22 - Galileo's Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems is published
- July 23 - 300 colonists for New France depart Dieppe
- November 8 - Wladyslaw IV Waza elected king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth after Zygmunt III Waza death
- November 16 - Battle of Lützen
- Fasilidos succeeds his father Sissinios as Emperor of Ethiopia
- Christina becomes queen of Sweden; five regents, headed by Axel Oxenstierna, govern country.
- Antigua and Barbuda is first colonized by England
- Portuguese driven out of Bengal.
- Charles I of England issues charter for the colony of Maryland (named in honor of Henrietta Maria), under control of Lord Baltimore.
- Sir Francis Windebank made chief Secretary of State in England.
- University of Tartu in Estonia founded
- Yakutsk in Russia founded
- King Ladislaus IV of Poland forbids Anti-Semitic books and printings.

Births

- January 8 - Samuel von Pufendorf, German jurist (d. 1694)
- January 29 - Johann Georg Graevius, German classical scholar and critic (d. 1703)
- May 8 - Heino Heinrich Graf von Flemming, German field marshal and Governor of Berlin (d. 1706)
- June 10 - Esprit Fléchier, French writer and Bishop of Nîmes (d. 1710)
- August 20 - Louis Bourdaloue, French Jesuit preacher (d. 1704)
- August 29 - John Locke, English philosopher (d. 1704)
- October 20 - Sir Christopher Wren, English architect, astronomer, and mathematician (d. 1723)
- October 24 - Anton van Leeuwenhoek, Dutch scientist (d. 1723)
- October 31 - Johannes Vermeer, Dutch painter (d. 1675)
- November 23 - Jean Mabillon, French palaeographer and diplomat (d. 1707)
- November 24 - Baruch Spinoza, Dutch philosopher (d. 1677)
- November 28 - Jean-Baptiste Lully, Italian-born French composer (d. 1687)
- December 17 - Anthony Wood, English antiquarian (d. 1695) See also :Category:1632 births.

Deaths

- date unknown - Domhnall Spainnach MacMurrough-Kavanagh, last de facto King of Leinster
- January 31 - Joost Bürgi, Swiss clockmaker and mathematician (b. 1552)
- April 19 - Sigismund III Vasa, King of Sweden and Poland (b. 1566)
- April 30 - Johan Tzerclaes, Count of Tilly, Bavarian general (b. 1559)
- May 25 - Adam Tanner, Austrian mathematician and philosopher (b. 1572)
- June 22 - James Whitelocke, English judge (b. 1570)
- August 25 - Thomas Dekker, English dramatist
- September 13 - Leopold V of Austria, regent of Tyrol (b. 1586)
- October 12 - Kutsuki Mototsuna, Japanese samurai commander (b. 1549)
- October 30 - Henri II de Montmorency, French naval officer and Governor of Languedoc (b. 1595)
- November 6 - King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden (killed in battle) (b. 1594)
- November 17 - Gottfried Heinrich Graf zu Pappenheim, Bavarian field marshal (b. 1594)
- November 27 - John Eliot, English statesman (b. 1592)
- November 29 - Frederick V, Elector Palatine (b. 1596)
- December 7 - Emperor Sissinios of Ethiopia (b. 1607)
- December 8 - Philippe van Lansberge, Flemish astronomer (b. 1561) See also :Category:1632 deaths. Category:1632 ko:1632년

1632 (novel)

1632 is a science fiction alternative history novel written by Eric Flint. Originally intended to be a single story, it is now the first of an open-ended series (1632 series, also known as 163x series) in which the fictional town of Grantville, West Virginia (modeled on the real town of Mannington) is, through a side effect of an alien technology, transported back in time into the middle of the Thirty Years' War, in the German province of Thuringia. It was first published in New York by Baen Books in 2001 with ISBN 0671319728 . The full text of the novel is available from the Baen Free Library (see below).

External links

- [http://www.baen.com/library/0671319728/0671319728.htm Baen Free Library ebook of 1632]
- [http://www.webscription.net/10.1125/Baen/0743435427/0743435427.htm First Chapters of 1633 on Webscription.net]
- [http://bar.baen.com/ Baen's Bar is an official forum with several sections dedicated to the 1632 universe: 1632 Tech Manual, Slush and Comments]
- [http://www.1632.org 1632.org, a general fan page about 1632 universe]
- [http://www.klaus-leiss.de/1632Tech/ 1632 universe dedicated wiki]
- [http://www.wodzu.tonet.pl/republika_prokonsularna/En/163xCoTNRP.html 163x Commonwealth of Two Nations Resource Page - a page about Polish-Lthuanian Commonwealth in the 163x universe] ---- Category:163x Category:2001 books Category:Series of books

February 22

February 22 is the 53rd day of every year in the Gregorian Calendar. There are 312 days remaining, 313 in leap years.

Events

- 1290s BC - The coronation of Ramses II, on whose face the sun's rays fall each year in Abu Simbel temple.
- AD 1281 - Martin IV becomes Pope.
- 1288 - Nicholas IV becomes Pope.
- 1495 - King Charles VIII of France enters Naples to claim the city's throne.
- 1632 - Galileo's Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems is published.
- 1744 - The Battle of Toulon begins.
- 1819 - By the Adams-Onís Treaty, Spain sells Florida to the United States for five million U.S. dollars.
- 1847 - Mexican-American War: The Battle of Buena Vista - 5,000 American troops drive off 15,000 Mexican.
- 1855 - The Pennsylvania State University is founded.
- 1856 - The Republican Party opens its first national meeting in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
- 1865 - Tennessee adopts a new constitution that abolishes slavery.
- 1876 - Johns Hopkins University is founded in Baltimore, Maryland.
- 1879 - In Utica, New York, Frank Woolworth opens the first of many of 5 and 10-cent Woolworth stores.
- 1889 - President Grover Cleveland signs a bill admitting North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana and Washington as U.S. states.
- 1904 - UK recognises the South Orkney Islands as part of Argentina, in 1908 claims them again.
- 1915 - Germany institutes unrestricted submarine warfare.
- 1920 - In Emeryville, California, the first dog race track to employ an imitation rabbit opens.
- 1923 - The United States begins the first transcontinental air mail route.
- 1923 - Barcelona (Catalonia): Albert Einstein visits the city, invited by the scientist Esteban Terradas i Illa, as part of the monografics course of High Studies and Exchange organized by the Mancomunitat de Catalunya and conducted by Rafael de Campalans.
- 1924 - Calvin Coolidge becomes the first President of the United States to deliver a radio broadcast from the White House.
- 1942 - World War II: President Franklin D. Roosevelt orders General Douglas MacArthur out of the Philippines as American defense collapses.
- 1943 - Members of White Rose are executed in Nazi Germany.
- 1948 - Start of the Czechoslovak Revolution.
- 1949 - Grady the Cow, a 1,200-pound cow gets stuck inside a silo on a farm in Yukon, Oklahoma and garners national media attention.
- 1956 - Elvis Presley enters the music charts for the first time, with "Heartbreak Hotel".
- 1958 - Egypt and Syria join to form the United Arab Republic.
- 1959 - Lee Petty wins the first Daytona 500.
- 1969 - Barbara Jo Rubin wins a United States thoroughbred horse race making history as the first woman to do so.
- 1973 - Cold War: Following President Richard Nixon's visit to China, the United States and the People's Republic of China agree to establish liaison offices.
- 1979 - Independence of Saint Lucia from the United Kingdom.
- 1980 - The United States ice hockey team defeats the Soviet Union team at the 1980 Winter Olympic Games in an upset dubbed the "Miracle on Ice".
- 1994 - Aldrich Ames and his wife are charged by the United States Department of Justice with spying for the Soviet Union.
- 1997 - In Roslin, Scotland, scientists announce that an adult sheep named Dolly had been successfully cloned.
- 2002 - A MH-47E Chinook helicopter crashes into the ocean near the Philippines, killing all 10 aboard.

Births

- 1040 - Rashi, French rabbi and commentator (d. 1105)
- 1403 - King Charles VII of France (d. 1461)
- 1440 - King Ladislaus Posthumus of Bohemia and Hungary (d. 1457)
- 1500 - Cardinal Rodolfo Pio da Carpi, Italian humanist (d. 1564)
- 1612 - George Digby, 2nd Earl of Bristol, English statesman (d. 1677)
- 1705 - Peter Artedi, Swedish naturalist (d. 1735)
- 1714 - Louis-Georges de Bréquigny, French historian (d. 1795)
- 1732 (N.S.) - George Washington, first President of the United States (d. 1799)
- 1778 - Rembrandt Peale, American artist (d. 1860)
- 1788 - Arthur Schopenhauer, German philosopher (d. 1860)
- 1796 - Alexis Bachelot, French missionary (d. 1838)
- 1796 - Lambert Adolphe Jacques Quetelet, Belgian mathematician (d. 1874)
- 1817 - Carl Wilhelm Borchardt, German mathematician (d. 1880)
- 1819 - James Russell Lowell, American poet and essayist (d. 1891)
- 1839 - Francis Pharcellus Church, American editor and publisher (d. 1906)
- 1840 - August Bebel, German politician (d. 1913)
- 1849 - Nikolay Yakovlevich Sonin, Russian mathematician (d 1915)
- 1857 - Lord Robert Baden-Powell, English founder of the Boy Scouts (d. 1941)
- 1857 - Heinrich Hertz, German physicist (d. 1894)
- 1878 - Walter Ritz, Swiss physicist (d. 1909)
- 1880 - Frigyes Riesz, Hungarian mathematician (d. 1956)
- 1883 - Marguerite Clark, American silent film actress (d. 1940)
- 1886 - Hugo Ball, German author and poet (d. 1927)
- 1887 - Ksawery Tartakower, Polish chess player (d. 1956)
- 1889 - Lady Olave Baden-Powell, English Chief Girl Guide (d. 1977)
- 1892 - Edna St. Vincent Millay, American writer (d. 1950)
- 1899 - Dwight Frye, American actor (d. 1943)
- 1899 - George O'Hara, American actor (d. 1966)
- 1899 - Dechko Uzunov, Bulgarian painter (d. 1986)
- 1900 - Luis Buñuel, Spanish-born film director (d. 1983)
- 1902 - Fritz Strassmann, German physicist (d. 1980)
- 1903 - Morley Callaghan, Canadian writer (d. 1990)
- 1903 - Frank Plumpton Ramsey, English mathematician (d. 1903)
- 1907 - Sheldon Leonard, American actor, writer, director, and producer (d. 1997)
- 1907 - Robert Young, American actor (d. 1998)
- 1908 - Sir John Mills, English actor (d. 2005)
- 1914 - Renato Dulbecco, Italian-born virologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- 1918 - Sid Abel, Canadian hockey player (d. 2000)
- 1918 - Charlie Finley, American sports entrepreneur (d. 1996)
- 1918 - Don Pardo, American radio and television announcer
- 1918 - Robert Wadlow, tallest person in history (d. 1940)
- 1921 - Jean-Bédel Bokassa, ruler of the Central African Republic (d. 1996)
- 1921 - Wayne Booth, American literary critic (d. 2005)
- 1922 - Steven Hill, American actor
- 1925 - Edward Gorey, American illustrator (d. 2000)
- 1926 - Kenneth Williams, English actor (d. 1988)
- 1926 - Bud Yorkin, American film director
- 1927 - Guy Mitchell, American singer
- 1928 - Paul Dooley, American actor
- 1928 - Bruce Forsyth, British entertainer
- 1929 - Rebecca Schull, American actress
- 1930 - Marni Nixon, American singer
- 1932 - Ted Kennedy, U.S. Senator from Massachusetts
- 1934 - Sparky Anderson, baseball manager
- 1936 - J. Michael Bishop, American scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- 1938 - Ishmael Reed, American writer
- 1941 - Hipólito Mejía, President of the Dominican Republic
- 1944 - Jonathan Demme, American director
- 1944 - Robert Kardashian, American lawyer
- 1944 - Tom Okker, Dutch tennis player
- 1945 - Leslie Charleson, American actress
- 1949 - Niki Lauda, Austrian race car driver
- 1949 - Olga Morozova, Russian tennis player
- 1950 - Julius Erving, American basketball player
- 1950 - Ellen Greene, American actress
- 1950 - Miou-Miou, French actress
- 1950 - Julie Walters, English actress
- 1952 - Bill Frist, American politician
- 1959 - Kyle MacLachlan, American actor
- 1962 - Steve Irwin, Australian herpetologist and televison personality
- 1963 - Vijay Singh, Fiji golfer
- 1966 - Rachel Dratch, American actress and comedienne
- 1966 - Brian Greig, Australian politician
- 1967 - Alf Poier, Austrian comedian
- 1968 - Jeri Ryan, American actress
- 1969 - Byron Stroud, American bassist (Fear Factory)
- 1971 - Lea Salonga, Filipina actress and singer
- 1972 - Claudia Pechstein, German speed skater
- 1975 - Drew Barrymore, American actress
- 1979 - Brett Emerton, Australian footballer
- 1982 - Jenna Haze, American actress

Deaths

- 965 - Odo, Duke of Burgundy
- 1071 - Arnulf III, Count of Flanders (killed in battle)
- 1111 - Roger Borsa, King of Sicily
- 1371 - King David II of Scotland (b. 1324)
- 1512 - Amerigo Vespucci, Italian merchant and explorer (b. 1454)
- 1627 - Olivier van Noort, Dutch navigator (b. 1558)
- 1674 - Jean Chapelain, French writer (b. 1595)
- 1680 - Catherine Monvoisin, French sorceress
- 1690 - Charles Le Brun, French artist (b. 1619)
- 1727 - Francesco Gasparini, Italian composer (b. 1661)
- 1731 - Frederik Ruysch, Dutch physician and anatomist (b. 1638)
- 1732 - Francis Atterbury, English bishop and man of letters (b. 1663)
- 1742 - Charles Rivington, English publisher (b. 1688)
- 1797 - Karl Friedrich Hieronymus Freiherr von Münchhausen, German officer and adventurer (b. 1720)
- 1816 - Adam Ferguson, Scottish philosopher and historian (b. 1723)
- 1875 - Jean-Baptiste Camille Corot, French painter (b. 1796)
- 1875 - Sir Charles Lyell, Scottish geologist (b. 1797)
- 1890 - John Jacob Astor III, American businessman (b. 1822)
- 1890 - Carl Heinrich Bloch, Danish painter (b. 1834)
- 1892 - Herman Koeckemann, German Catholic prelate (b. 1828)
- 1901 - George Francis FitzGerald, Irish mathematician (b. 1851)
- 1903 - Hugo Wolf, Austrian composer (b. 1860)
- 1939 - Antonio Machado, Spanish poet (b. 1875)
- 1943 - Hans Scholl, German resistance fighter (b. 1918)
- 1943 - Sophie Scholl, German resistance fighter (b. 1921)
- 1945 - Osip Brik, Russian writer (d. 1888)
- 1961 - Nick LaRocca, American jazz musician (b. 1889)
- 1965 - Felix Frankfurter, Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (b. 1882)
- 1968 - Peter Arno, American cartoonist (b. 1904)
- 1976 - Angela Baddeley, English actress (b. 1904)
- 1976 - Florence Ballard, American singer (The Supremes) (b. 1943)
- 1980 - Oskar Kokoschka, Austrian artist (b. 1886)
- 1983 - Sir Adrian Boult, English conductor (b. 1889)
- 1984 - Jessamyn West, American writer (b. 1902)
- 1985 - Alexander Scourby, American actor (b. 1913)
- 1985 - Efrem Zimbalist, Russian violinist (b. 1889)
- 1987 - Andy Warhol, American artist, director, and writer (b. 1928)
- 1994 - Papa John Creech, American musician
- 1995 - Ed Flanders, American actor (b. 1934)
- 1997 - Joseph Aiuppa, American gangster (b. 1907)
- 1998 - Abraham Ribicoff, American politician (b. 1910)
- 2000 - Fernando Buesa, Spanish politician (b. 1946)
- 2002 - Chuck Jones, American animator (b. 1912)
- 2002 - Jonas Savimbi, Angolan rebel leader (b. 1934)
- 2004 - Roque Máspoli, Uruguayan footballer (b. 1917)
- 2004 - Andy Seminick, baseball player (b. 1920)
- 2005 - Zdzisław Beksiński, Polish artist (b. 1929)
- 2005 - Simone Simon, French actress (b. 1910)

Holidays and observances

- Roman Catholic Church - Feast of the Chair of Saint Peter
- United States - Washington's Birthday (traditionally)
- Saint Lucia - independence (1979)

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/22 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050222.html The New York Times: On This Day] ---- February 21 - February 23 - January 22 - March 22 -- listing of all days ko:2월 22일 ja:2月22日 simple:February 22 th:22 กุมภาพันธ์

Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems

The Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo) was Galileo's comparison of the Copernican system, in which the Earth and other planets orbit the Sun, with the traditional Ptolemaic system, in which everything in the Universe circles around the Earth. The book was published in Florence in 1632 under a formal license from the Inquisition. In 1633 Galileo was convicted of "grave suspicion of heresy" based on the book, which was then placed on the Index of forbidden books, from which it was not removed until 1822. In an action that was not announced at the time, the publication of anything else he had written or ever might write was also banned. While writing the book, Galileo referred to it as his Dialogue on the Tides; and this was its title when the manuscript went to the Inquisition for approval: Dialogue on the Ebb and Flow of the Sea. He was ordered to remove all mention of tides from the title and to change the preface, because granting approval to such a title would look like approval of his theory of the tides, which attempted to prove the motion of the Earth physically. As a result, the formal title on the title page is Dialogue, which is followed by Galileo's name and academic posts, followed by a long subtitle. The name by which the work is now known is extracted from deep within the subtitle. This must be kept in mind when discussing Galileo's motives for writing the book. The book is presented as a series of discussions, over a span of four days, among two philosophers and a layman:
- Salviati argues for the Copernican position and presents some of Galileo's views directly, calling him the "Academician" in honor of Galileo's membership in the Accademia dei Lincei. He is named after Galileo's friend Filipo Salviati (1582 - 1614).
- Sagredo is an intelligent layman who is initially neutral. He is named after Galileo's friend Giovanfrancesco Sagredo (1571 - 1620).
- Simplicio is a dedicated follower of Ptolemy and Aristotle, who presents the traditional views and the arguments against the Copernican position. He is modeled after Ludovico delle Colombe (1565 - 1616?) and Cesare Cremonini (1550 - 1631), both of whom were conservative philosophers. The character's name is not "Simpleton", but is taken from the sixth-century philosopher Simplicius, who wrote notable commentaries on Aristotle. Although the book is presented formally as a consideration of both systems (as it needed to be in order to be published at all), there is no question that the Copernican side gets the better of the argument. What the discussion would have been like if Simplicio had been as smart and well informed as Salviati is a matter of speculation, as no one has attempted to construct a version of the dialogue in which the traditionalists come out ahead. The dialogue does not treat the Tychonian system, which was becoming the preferred system of the Catholic church at the time of publication. The Tychonian system is mathematically equivalent to the Copernican system, and therefore there was at the time no valid disproof of it on empirical grounds. Galileo never took Tycho's system seriously, as can be seen in his correspondence, regarding it as an inadequate and physically unsatisfactory compromise. A reason for the absence of Tycho's system (in spite of many references to Tycho and his work in the book) may be sought in Galileo's theory of the tides, which provided the original title and organizing principle of the Dialogue. For, while the Copernican and Tychonic systems are equivalent geometrically, they are quite different dynamically. Galileo's tidal theory entailed the actual, physical movement of the Earth; that is, if true, it would have provided the kind of proof that Foucault's pendulum actually provided two centuries later. With reference to Galileo's tidal theory, there would be no difference between the Ptolemaic and Tychonic systems. The discussion is not narrowly limited to astronomical topics, but ranges over much of contemporary science. Some of this is to show what Galileo considered good science, such as the discussion of William Gilbert's work on magnetism. Other parts are important to the debate, answering erroneous arguments against the Earth's motion. In this category is a thought experiment in which a man is below decks on a ship and cannot tell whether the ship is docked or is moving smoothly through the water: he observes water dripping from a bottle, fish swimming in a tank, butterflies flying, and so on; and their behavior is just the same whether the ship is moving or not. This is a classic exposition of the Inertial frame of reference and refutes the objection that if we were moving hundreds of miles an hour as the Earth rotated, anything that one dropped would rapidly fall behind and drift to the west. The bulk of Galileo's arguments may be divided into three classes:
- Rebuttals to the objections raised by traditional philosophers; for example, the thought experiment on the ship.
- Observations that are incompatible with the Ptolemaic model; for instance, the phases of Venus, which simply couldn't happen, or the observed motions of sunspots, for which a Ptolemaic account would be extremely complicated and physically outlandish.
- Arguments showing that the elegant unified theory of the Heavens that the philosophers held, which was believed to prove that the Earth was stationary, was incorrect; for instance, the mountains of the Moon, the moons of Jupiter, and the very existence of sunspots, none of which could be accommodated by the old astronomy. By and large, these arguments have held up well in terms of the knowledge of the next 350 years. Just how convincing they ought to have been to an impartial reader in 1632 remains a contentious issue. Galileo attempted a fourth class of argument:
- Direct physical argument for the Earth's motion, by means of an explanation of tides. As an account of the causation of tides or a proof of the Earth's motion, it is a failure. But Galileo was fond of the argument and devoted the "Fourth Day" of the discussion to it. The degree of its failure is, like nearly anything having to do with Galileo, a matter of controversy. On the one hand, the whole thing has recently been described in print as "cockamamie." On the other hand, Einstein used a rather different description:

It was Galileo's longing for a mechanical proof of the motion of the earth which misled him into formulating a wrong theory of the tides. The fascinating arguments in the last conversation would hardly have been accepted as proof by Galileo, had his temperament not got the better of him. [Emphasis added]

Editions in print

- Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, translated by Stillman Drake, University of California Press, 1953 (revised 1967). Also Modern Library paperback.
- Galileo on the World Systems, translated and abridged by Maurice A. Finocchiaro, University of California Press, 1997. Category:1632 books Category:Controversial books Category:Banned books Category:Astronomy books Category:Physics books Category:History of astronomy

External links

- [http://webexhibits.org/calendars/year-text-Galileo.html Full Text: Galileo Galilei - Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems]

July 23

July 23 is the 204th day (205th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 161 days remaining.

Events

- 1503 - Orbital calculations suggest that on this day Pluto moved outside Neptune's orbit, remaining there for 233 years.
- 1632 - 300 colonists bound for New France depart Dieppe, France.
- 1829 - In the United States, William Austin Burt patents the first typewriter.
- 1862 - American Civil War: Henry W. Halleck takes command of the Union Army.
- 1903 - Dr. Ernst Pfenning of Chicago, Illinois becomes the first owner of a Ford Model A.
- 1914 - Austria-Hungary issues an ultimatum to Serbia allowing the Austrians to find out who killed Archduke Franz Ferdinand. When Serbia denies Austria-Hungary their demands World War I is sparked on July 28, 1914
- 1926 - Fox Film buys the patents of the Movietone sound system for recording sound onto film.
- 1936 - In Catalonia, Spain, the Unified Socialist Party of Catalonia is founded through the merger of socialist and communist parties.
- 1940 - US Under Secretary of State Sumner Welles`s declaration on the US non-recognition policy of the Soviet annexation and incorporation of three Baltic States - Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.
- 1942- The Treblinka extermination camp is opened
- 1952 - General Muhammad Naguib leads the Free Officers Movement (formed by Gamal Abdel Nasser - the real power behind the coup) in the overthrow of King Farouk of Egypt.
- 1956 - The Loi Cadre is passed by the French Republic in order to order French overseas territory affairs.
- 1961 - Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN) founded in Nicaragua.
- 1962 - Telstar relays the first live trans-Atlantic television signal.
- 1967 - 12th Street Riot: In Detroit, Michigan, one of the worst riots in United States history begins on 12th Street in the predominantly African American inner city (43 killed, 342 injured and ~1,400 buildings burned).
- 1970 - Qaboos ibn Sa’id, becomes Sultan of Oman.
- 1972 - The United States launches Landsat 1, first Earth-resources satellite.
- 1973 - Robert Anton Wilson, the occultist/philosopher, either achieved contact with extraterrestrials from Sirius or started a long-term period of having wild hallucinations, depending on which way you want to look at it.
- 1982 - The International Whaling Commission decides to end commercial whaling by 1985-86.
- 1983 - Gimli Glider: Air Canada flight 143 crash-lands in Gimli, Manitoba.
- 1984 - Vanessa Williams becomes the first Miss America to resign when she surrenders her crown after nude photos of her appeared in Penthouse magazine.
- 1986 - In London, Prince Andrew, Duke of York marries Sarah Ferguson at Westminster Abbey.
- 1997 - Digital Equipment Company files antitrust charges against chipmaker Intel.
- 1999 - Crown Prince Mohammed Ben Al-Hassan, is crowned King Mohammed VI of Morroco at the death of his father.
- 1999 - Hijack of ANA Flight 61 in Tokyo.
- 2001 - Megawati Soekarnoputri becomes the fifth President of Indonesia, replacing Abdurrahman Wahid.
- 2003 - Operation Warrior Sweep is the first major military deployment of the Afghan National Army.
- 2004 - Eleven years after its destruction, Stari most (the Old Bridge) in Mostar is reopened.

Births

- 1301 - Duke Otto of Austria (d. 1339)
- 1339 - King Louis I of Naples (d. 1384)
- 1626 - Sabbatai Zevi, Ottoman Jewish religious leader
- 1649 - Pope Clement XI (d. 1721)
- 1705 - Francis Blomefield, English topographer (d. 1752)
- 1734 - Antonio Maria Gaspare Sacchini, Italian composer (d. 1786)
- 1777 - Philipp Otto Runge, German painter (d. 1810)
- 1796 - Franz Berwald, Swedish composer (d. 1868)
- 1838 - Edouard Judas Colonne, French violinist (d. 1910)
- 1865 - Max Heindel, Danish Christian occultist, astrologer, and mystic (d. 1919)
- 1884 - Emil Jannings, Swiss actor (d. 1950)
- 1886 - Salvador de Madariaga, Spanish League of Nations official (d. 1978)
- 1888 - Raymond Chandler, American author (d. 1959)
- 1892 - Haile Selassie, Emperor of Ethiopia (d. 1975)
- 1893 - Karl Menninger, American psychiatrist (d. 1990)
- 1894 - Arthur Treacher, English character actor (d. 1975)
- 1895 - Aileen Pringle, American actress (d. 1989)
- 1899 - Gustav Heinemann, President of Germany (d. 1976)
- 1906 - Vladimir Prelog, Croatian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1998)
- 1918 - Bueno de Mesquita Dutch comedian and actor (d. 2005)
- 1918 - Pee Wee Reese baseball player (d. 1999)
- 1921 - Calvert DeForest, American actor
- 1923 - Witto Aloma, baseball player (d. 1997)
- 1933 - Bert Convy, American game show host, actor, and singer (d. 1991)
- 1936 - Shiv Kumar Batalvi, Punjabi revolutionary (d. 1973)
- 1936 - Don Drysdale, baseball player (d. 1993)
- 1936 - Anthony Kennedy, U.S. Supreme Court Justice
- 1938 - Juliet Anderson, American porn star
- 1938 - Götz George, German actor
- 1938 - Bert Newton, Australian actor and television show host
- 1940 - Don Imus, American talk radio host
- 1942 - Myra Hindley, English murderer (d. 2002)
- 1943 - Tony Joe White, American singer and songwriter
- 1947 - Gardner Dozois, American author
- 1947 - David Essex, English singer
- 1950 - Alex Kozinski, Romanian-born judge
- 1951 - Edie McClurg, American actress
- 1957 - Theo van Gogh, Dutch film director (assassinated) (d. 2004)
- 1961 - Martin Gore, English musician and songwriter (Depeche Mode)
- 1961 - Woody Harrelson, American actor
- 1965 - Slash, English-born guitarist (Guns N Roses)
- 1967 - Philip Seymour Hoffman, American actor
- 1968 - Gary Payton, American basketball player
- 1970 - Thea Dorn, German writer
- 1971 - Dalvin DeGrate, American singer
- 1971 - Alison Krauss, American singer and fiddler
- 1973 - Nomar Garciaparra, baseball player
- 1973 - Francis Healy, Scottish rock musician (Travis)
- 1973 - Monica Lewinsky, White House intern
- 1974 - Terry Glenn, American football player
- 1974 - Maurice Greene, American athlete
- 1974 - Stephanie March, American actress
- 1976 - Judit Polgár, Hungarian chess player
- 1978 - Stefanie Sun, Singapore singer
- 1980 - Michelle Williams, American singer
- 1981 - Steve Jocz, Canadian drummer (Sum41)
- 1983 - Rebecca Cartwright, Australian actress
- 1986 - Tomas Cunha e Silva, Portuguese driver
- 1989 - Daniel Radcliffe, English actor

Deaths

- 1227 - Qiu Chuji, Chinese Taoist (b. 1148)
- 1373 - Saint Birgitta, Swedish saint (b. 1303)
- 1403 - Thomas Percy, 1st Earl of Worcester, English rebel (executed) (born 1343)
- 1531 - Louis de Brézé, seigneur d'Anet, Marshal of Normandy and husband of Diane de Poitiers
- 1584 - John Day, English printer (b. 1522)
- 1692 - Gilles Ménage, French scholar (b. 1613)
- 1727 - Simon Harcourt, 1st Viscount Harcourt, Lord Chancellor of Great Britain
- 1757 - Domenico Scarlatti, Italian composer (b. 1685)
- 1764 - Gilbert Tennent, Irish-born religious leader (b. 1703)
- 1773 - George Edwards, English naturalist (b. 1693)
- 1781 - John Joachim Zubly, Swiss-born Continental Congressman (b. 1724)
- 1793 - Roger Sherman, American signer of the Declaration of Independence (b. 1721)
- 1853 - Andries Pretorius, Boer leader (b. 1798)
- 1878 - Carl Freiherr von Rokitansky, Bohemian physician (b. 1804)
- 1885 - Ulysses S. Grant, 18th President of the United States (b. 1822)
- 1916 - Sir William Ramsay, Scottish chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1852)
- 1920 - Conrad Kohrs, German-born rancher (b. 1835)
- 1924 - Frank Frost Abbott, American classical scholar (b. 1850)
- 1942 - Adam Czerniakow, Polish engineer (suicide) (b. 1880)
- 1948 - D. W. Griffith, American film director (b. 1875)
- 1951 - Henri Philippe Pétain, leader of Vichy France (b. 1856)
- 1955 - Cordell Hull, United States Secretary of State, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1871)
- 1966 - Montgomery Clift, American actor (b. 1920)
- 1968 - Henry Hallett Dale, English scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1875)
- 1971 - Van Heflin, American actor (b. 1910)
- 1973 - Eddie Rickenbacker, American pilot (b. 1890)
- 1982 - Vic Morrow, American actor (b. 1929)
- 1983 - Georges Auric, French composer (b. 1899)
- 1985 - Johnny Wardle, English cricketer (b. 1923)
- 1989 - Donald Barthelme, American author (b. 1931)
- 1997 - Chuhei Nambu, Japanese athlete (b. 1904)
- 1999 - King Hassan II of Morocco (b. 1929)
- 2001 - Eudora Welty, American author (b. 1909)
- 2002 - Leo McKern, Australian actor (b. 1920)
- 2002 - Dr. William L. Pierce, American author and activist (b. 1933)
- 2002 - Chaim Potok, American novelist and rabbi (b. 1929)
- 2003 - James E. Davis, New York City councilman (murdered) (b. 1962)
- 2004 - Mehmood, Indian actor (b. 1932)
- 2004 - Carlos Paredes, Portuguese musician and composer (b. 1925)

Holidays and observances

- Egypt - Revolution Day (1952)
- Libya - Revolution Day
- Papua New Guinea - Remembrance Day
- Roman Empire - Neptunalia held in honor of Neptune
- Rastafari movement - Celebration of the birthday of Haile Selassie
- Astrology: First day of sun sign Leo

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/23 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.tnl.net/when/7/23 This Day in History] ---- July 22 - July 24 - June 23 - August 23 -- listing of all days ko:7월 23일 ms:23 Julai ja:7月23日 simple:July 23 th:23 กรกฎาคม

New France

New France (French: la Nouvelle-France) describes the area colonized by France in North America during a period extending from the exploration of the Saint Lawrence River by Jacques Cartier in 1534 to the cession of New France to the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1763. At its peak in 1712 (before the Treaty of Utrecht), the territory of New France extended from Newfoundland to Lake Superior and from the Hudson Bay to the Gulf of Mexico. The territory was then divided in five colonies, each with its own administration: Canada, Acadia, Hudson Bay, Newfoundland and Louisiana.

Early exploration

In 1524, Italian navigator Giovanni de Verrazzano explored the eastern shore and named the new lands Francesca, in honor of King Francis I of France. In 1534, Jacques Cartier planted a cross in the Gaspé peninsula and claimed the land in the name of King Francis I. However, France was initially not interested in backing up these claims with settlement. French fishing fleets, however, continued to sail to the Atlantic coast and into the St. Lawrence River, making alliances with First Nations that would become important once France began to occupy the land. French merchants soon realized the St. Lawrence region was full of valuable fur, especially beaver fur, which was becoming rare in Europe as the European beaver had almost been driven to extinction. Eventually, the French crown decided to colonize the territory to secure and expand its influence in America. The vast territories that were to be known as Acadia and Canada were in some areas inhabited by nomadic Amerindian peoples or settlements of Hurons and Iroquois. These lands were full of unexploited and valuable natural riches which attracted all of Europe. By the 1580s, French trading companies had been set up, and ships were contracted to bring back furs. Much of what has happened between the natives and the European visitors around that time is not known for lack of historical records. Early attempts at establishing permanent settlements were failures. In 1598 a trading post was established on Sable Island, off the coast of Acadia, but was unsuccessful. In 1600, a trading post was established at Tadoussac, but only five settlers survived the winter. In 1604 a settlement was founded at Île-Saint-Croix on Baie François (Bay of Fundy) which was moved to Port-Royal in 1605, only to be abandoned in 1607, reestablished in 1610 and destroyed in 1613 whereby settlers moved to other nearby locations.

Foundation of Québec

In 1608, sponsored by Henry IV of France, Samuel de Champlain founded Québec with six families totalling 28 people, the first successful settlement in Canada. Colonization was slow and difficult. Many settlers died early. In 1630 there were only 100 colonists living in the settlement, and by 1640 there was 359. Champlain quickly allied himself with the Algonquian and Montagnais peoples in the area, who were at war with the Iroquois.He established strong bonds with the Hurons in order to keep the fur trade alive. He also arranged to have young French men live with the natives, to learn their language and customs and help the French adapt to life in North America. These men, known as Voyageurs, such as Étienne Brûlé, extended French influence south and west to the Great Lakes and among the Huron tribes who lived there. Huron For the first few decades of Québec's existence, there were only a few dozen settlers there, while the English colonies to the south were much more populous and wealthy. Cardinal Richelieu, adviser to King Louis XIII, wished to make New France as significant as the English colonies. In 1627 Richelieu founded the Company of One Hundred Associates to invest in New France, promising land parcels to hundreds of new settlers and to turn Québec into an important mercantile and population colony. Champlain was named Governor of New France, and Richelieu forbade non-Roman Catholics from living there. Protestants were required to renounce their faith to establish themselves in New France; many chose instead to move to the English colonies. The Roman Catholic Church, and missionaries such as the Recollets and the Jesuits, became firmly established in the territory. Richelieu also introduced the seigneurial system, a semi-feudal system of farming that remained a characteristic feature of the St. Lawrence valley until the 19th century. At the same time, however, the English colonies to the south began to raid the St. Lawrence valley, and in 1629 Québec itself was captured and held until 1632. Champlain returned to Québec that year, and requested that Sieur de Laviolette found another trading post at Trois-Rivières in 1634. Champlain died in 1635. The Church, which after Champlain’s death was the most dominant force in New France, wanted to establish a utopian Christian community in the colony. In 1642, they sponsored a group of settlers led by Paul Chomedey de Maisonneuve who founded Ville-Marie, precursor to present-day Montreal, further up the St. Lawrence. Throughout the 1640s, Jesuit missionaries penetrated the Great Lakes region and converted many of the Huron natives. The missionaries came into conflict with the Iroquois, who frequently attacked Montreal. By 1649 both the Jesuit mission and Huron society in general were almost completely destroyed by Iroquois invasions (see Canadian Martyrs).

Royal control

In the 1650s, Montreal still had only a few dozen settlers and a severely underpopulated New France almost fell completely to the Iroquois attempts to drive the French out. In 1660, settler Adam Dollard des Ormeaux led a Canadian and Huron militia against a much larger Iroquois force; none of the Canadians survived. In 1663 New France finally became more secure when Louis XIV made it a province of France. In 1665 he sent a French garrison, the Carignan-Salières regiment, to Québec. The government of the colony was reformed along the lines of the government of France, with the Governor General and Intendant subordinate to the Minister of the Marine in France. In 1665, Jean Talon was sent by Minister of the Marine Jean-Baptiste Colbert to New France as the first Intendant. These reforms limited the power of the Bishop of Québec, who had held the greatest amount of power after the death of Champlain. The 1666 census of New France was conducted by France's intendant, Jean Talon in the winter of 1665-1666. It showed a population of 3215 habitants in New France, many more than there had been only a few decades earlier. But the census showed a great difference in the number of men (2034) and women (1181). As a result, and hoping to make the colony the centre of France's colonial empire, Louis XIV decided to dispatch more than 700 single women, aged between 15 and 30 (known as les filles du roi) to New France. At the same time, marriages with the natives were encouraged and indentured servants, known as engagés, were also sent to New France. One such engagé, Etienne Trudeau, was the ancestor of future Prime Minister of Canada Pierre Elliott Trudeau. Talon also tried to reform the seigneurial system, forcing the seigneurs to actually reside on their land, and limiting the size of the seigneuries, in an attempt to make more land available to new settlers. These schemes were ultimately unsuccessful. Very few settlers arrived, and the various industries established by Talon did not surpass the importance of the fur trade. Since Henry Hudson claimed Hudson Bay, James Bay and surrounding territory for the English, they had began expanding their boundaries across what is now the Canadian north beyond the French-held territory of New France. In 1670, with the help of French coureurs des bois, Pierre-Esprit Radisson and Médard des Groseilliers, the Hudson's Bay Company was established to control the fur trade in all the land that drained into Hudson Bay. This ended the French monopoly on the Canadian fur trade. To compensate, the French extended their territory to the south, and to the west of the American colonies. In 1682, René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle explored the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, and claimed the entire territory for France as far south as the Gulf of Mexico. He named this territory Louisiana. Although there was virtually no colonization in this part of New France, there were many strategic forts built there, under the orders of Governor Louis de Buade de Frontenac. Forts were also built in the older portions of New France that had not yet been settled. Louis de Buade de Frontenac In 1689 the English and Iroquois began an assault on New France, after many years of minor skirmishes throughout the English and French territories. This war, known as King William's War, ended in 1697, but a second war (Queen Anne's War) broke out in 1702. Québec survived the English invasions of both these wars, but Port Royal and Acadia fell in 1690. In 1713 peace came to New France with the Treaty of Utrecht. Although the treaty turned Newfoundland and part of Acadia (peninsular Nova Scotia) over to Britain, France remained in control of Île Royale (Cape Breton Island) and Fortress Louisbourg, as well as Île Saint-Jean (Prince Edward Island) and part of what is today New Brunswick. After the treaty, New France began to prosper. Industries, such as fishing and farming, that had failed under Talon began to flourish. A "King’s Highway" was built between Montreal and Québec to encourage faster trade. The shipping industry also flourished as new ports were built and old ones were upgraded. The number of colonists greatly increased, and by 1720 Québec had become a self-sufficient colony with a population of 24,594 people. The Church, although now less powerful than it had originally been, had control over education and social welfare. These years of peace are often referred to by the French as New France's "Golden Age" but the aboriginal peoples regarded it as the continued decimation of their nations. Peace lasted until 1744, when William Shirley, governor of Massachusetts, led an attack on Louisbourg. Both France and New France were unable to relieve the siege, and Louisbourg fell. France attempted to retake the fortress in 1746 but failed. It was returned under the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, but this did not stop the warfare between the British and French in North America. In 1754 the French and Indian War began as the North American phase of the Seven Years' War (which did not technically begin in Europe until 1756), with the defeat of a small army led by Colonel George Washington by the French militia in the Ohio valley.

Fall of New France

New France now had over 50,000 inhabitants, a vast increase from earlier in the century, but the British American colonies greatly outnumbered them with over one million people (including a substantial number of French Huguenots). It was much easier for the British colonists to organize attacks on New France than it was for the French to attack the British. In 1755 General Edward Braddock led an expedition against the French Fort Duquesne, and although they were numerically superior to the French militia and their Indian allies, Braddock's army was routed and Braddock was killed. In 1758 Great Britain again captured Louisbourg, allowing them to blockade the entrance to the St. Lawrence River. This was essentially the death sentence of New France. In 1759 the British besieged Québec by sea, and an army under General James Wolfe defeated the French under General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham in September. The garrison in Québec surrendered on September 18, and by the next year New France had been completely conquered by the British. The last French governor-general of New France, Pierre Francois de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnal, surrendered to British Major General Jeffrey Amherst on September 8 1760. France finally ceded Canada to the British in the Treaty of Paris, signed on February 10, 1763. French culture and religion remained dominant in most of the former territory of New France, until the arrival of British settlers led to the later creation of Upper Canada (today Ontario) and New Brunswick. The Louisiana Territory, under Spanish control since the end of the Seven Years' War, remained off-limits to settlement from the 13 American colonies. Following Napoleon Bonaparte's defeat of Spain, he took back the Louisiana Territory and in 1803 sold it to the new United States. This sale represented the end of the French colonial empire in North America except for the islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon which it still controls to this day.

Selected bibliography

- Choquette, Leslie. Frenchmen into peasants : modernity and tradition in the peopling of French Canada. Cambridge MA : Harvard University Press, 1997. ISBN 0674323157. Translated into French as: De France à paysans : modernité et tradition dans le peuplement du Canada français. Sillery, Québec : Septentrion, 2001. ISBN 20010126848.
- Eccles, William John. The French in North America 1500-1763. East Lansing : Michigan State University Press, 1998. ISBN 0870134841.
- Havard, Gilles et Vidal, Cécile. Histoire de l'Amérique française. Paris : Flammarion, 2003. ISBN 2082100456.
- Lahaise, Robert et Vallerand, Noël. La Nouvelle-France 1524-1760. Outremont, Québec : Lanctôt, 1999. ISBN 2894850603.
- Moogk, Peter N. La Nouvelle-France : the making of French Canada : a cultural history. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2000. ISBN 0870135287.

External links

- [http://pages.infinit.net/histoire/ydatnfqc.html Chronologie de l'histoire du Québec (French)] (List of Governors, Intendants, and Bishops)
- [http://www.republiquelibre.org/cousture/NVFR2.HTM New France: 1524-1763]
- [http://www.archivescanadafrance.org Archives Canada-France. Digitisation project of the national archives of Canada and France]
- [http://www.houseofdavid.ca/new_fr.htm Why New France ended up as it did – under-populated and swallowed by the English].
- [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/games/jeu3_nouvelle_france/ Quiz: New France] — Educational game on New France
- Category:History of France ja:ヌーベルフランス

Dieppe, France

Dieppe is a town and commune in the Seine-Maritime département of Haute-Normandie (eastern Normandy), France. Population of the city (commune) at the 1999 census was 34,653 inhabitants (Dieppois), whereas the whole metropolitan area (aire urbaine) had 81,419 inhabitants. A port on the English Channel, famous for its scallops, with a regular ferry service to Newhaven, East Sussex, Dieppe also has a popular beach, a 15th century castle and the churches of St. Jacques and St. Remy.

Geography

Dieppe belongs to the Pays de Caux region.

History

First recorded as a small fishing settlement in 1030, Dieppe was an important prize fought over during the Hundred Years' War. Dieppe housed the most advanced French school of cartography in the 16th century, and was the premiere port of the kingdom in the 17th century. On July 23, 1632 300 colonists headed for New France departed Dieppe. At the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, Dieppe lost 3000 of its citizens, who fled abroad. Dieppe was an important target in wartime; the town was largely destroyed by Anglo-Dutch naval bombardment in 1694. Rebuilt after 1696, it was popularised as a seaside resort following the first visit in 1824 of the widowed Duchess of Berry, daughter-in-law of Charles X. She encouraged the building of the recently-renovated municipal theater, the Petit-Theatre (1825), associated above all others with Camille Saint-Saëns. On August 19, 1942, during the Second World War, it was the site of the Dieppe Raid, a bloody landing by Allied soldiers, mainly Canadian.

Sights

The Castle, which survived the 1694 bombardment, contains an exhibition space and a museum with a strong maritime collection, a rich collection of the 17th and 18th century ivory carvings, including lacy folding fans, for which Dieppe was known, and the furnishings and papers of Camille Saint-Saens. The castle's interior courtyard is picturesque.

External links

- [http://www.mairie-dieppe.fr/ Dieppe Town Council website]
- [http://users.pandora.be/dave.depickere/Text/dieppe.html The Dieppe Raid] Category:Communes of Seine-Maritime

November 8

November 8 is the 312th day of the year (313th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 53 days remaining.

Events

- 1519 - Hernán Cortés enters Tenochtitlán and Aztec ruler Moctezuma welcomes him with great pomp as would befit a returning god.
- 1520 - Stockholm Bloodbath begins: A successful invasion of Sweden by Danish forces results in the execution of around 100 persons.
- 1576 - Eighty Years' War: Pacification of Ghent - The States-General of the Netherlands meet and unite to oppose Spanish occupation.
- 1602 - The Bodleian Library at Oxford University is opened to the public.
- 1620 - The Battle of White Mountain, the first battle in the Thirty Years' War, takes place near Prague, ending in a decisive Catholic victory in only two hours.
- 1793 - In Paris, the French Revolutionary government opens the Louvre to the public as a museum.
- 1837 - Formation of Mount Holyoke Seminary, first US college founded for women
- 1861 - American Civil War: The "Trent Affair" – The USS San Jacinto stops the United Kingdom mailship Trent and arrests two Confederate envoys, sparking a diplomatic crisis between the UK and US.
- 1864 - U.S. presidential election, 1864: Abraham Lincoln is reelected in an overwhelming victory over George McClellan.
- 1889 - Montana is admitted as the 41st U.S. state.
- 1892 - U.S. presidential election, 1892: Grover Cleveland is elected over Benjamin Harrison and James B. Weaver to win the second of his non-consecutive terms.
- 1895 - While experimenting with electricity Wilhelm Röntgen discovers x-rays.
- 1917 - People's Commissars gives authority to Lenin, Trotsky and Stalin
- 1923 - Beer Hall Putsch: In Munich, Adolf Hitler leads the Nazis in an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government.
- 1932 - U.S. presidential election, 1932: Franklin D. Roosevelt defeats Herbert Hoover in a landslide victory.
- 1933 - Great Depression: New Deal - US President Franklin D. Roosevelt unveils the Civil Works Administration, an organization designed to create jobs for more than 4 million of the unemployed.
- 1935 - A dozen labor leaders come together to announce the creation of the Congress for Industrial Organization (CIO), an organization charged with pushing the cause for industrial unionism.
- 1935 - Fernand Bouisson becomes Prime Minister of France
- 1937 - The Nazi exhibition Der ewige Jude ("the eternal Jew") opens in Munich.
- 1939 - Venlo Incident: Two British agents of SIS are captured by the Germans.
- 1939 - In Munich, Adolf Hitler narrowly escapes an assassination attempt while celebrating the 16th anniversary of the Beer Hall Putsch.
- 1941 - Albanian Communist Party founded.
- 1942 - World War II: Operation Torch - United States and United Kingdom forces land in French North Africa.
- 1942 - World War II: French resistance coup in Algiers, by which 400 Civil French patriots neutralized Vichyst XIXth Army Corps during 15 hours, arrested vichyst generals (Juin, Darlan, etc.), and so allowed the immediate success of Operation Torch in Algiers, then, from there, to the whole French North Africa.
- 1950 - Korean War: United States Air Force Lt. Russell J. Brown shoots down two North Korean MiG-15s in the first jet aircraft-to-jet aircraft dog fight in history.
- 1960 - U.S. presidential election, 1960: John F. Kennedy is elected over Richard M. Nixon, becoming the youngest man elected to that office.
- 1965 - The British Indian Ocean Territory is created, consisting of Chagos Archipelago, Aldabra, Farquhar and